Chapter
I. Acquisition and attrition
Word order variation in Norwegian possessive constructions: Bilingual acquisition and attrition
2. Pre- and postnominal possessives: Syntactic structure, interpretation and frequency
2.2 The interpretation of pre- and postnominal possessives
2.3 The distribution of pre- and postnominal possessives
3. Possessive structures and monolingual acquisition
5.1 Informants and data collection
5.3 Similarities between mono- and bilinguals: The overuse of prenominal possessives
5.4 Differences between mono- and bilinguals: Definiteness marking and postnominal possessives
6.3 Possessive constructions with a postnominal possessive
6.4 Possessive constructions with prenominal possessives
Attrition in an American Norwegian heritage language speaker
2.1 Informant and linguistic evidence
2.2 Methodology and background material
3. Norwegian language and the order of acquisition
3.1 The noun phrase and its categories
3.2 Clauses and sentences
4. Results of the investigation of Daisy’s American Norwegian
4.1 Results regarding the noun phrase
4.2 Clauses and sentences
5. Daisy’s results relative to the acquisition data
5.1 Noun-phrase related categories
5.2 Clause-related categories
Reexamining Icelandic as a heritage language in North America
2. Background: Icelandic emigration to North America
3. Previous linguistic research and available resources
3.2 Available NA Icelandic corpora
4. Another glance at North American Icelandic as a heritage language
4.6 Phonetics and Phonology
II. Phonetic and phonological change
Heritage language obstruent phonetics and phonology American Norwegian, Norwegian-American English
2. Theoretical background
2.2 English and Norwegian laryngeal phonetics and phonology
3. Speakers and community
4. The problem of description: Sonorant devoicing
5. Medial voicing: An under-investigated area
6. Final laryngeal distinctions
7. Summary and conclusions
The history of front rounded vowels in New Braunfels German
Functional convergence and extension in contact
2. Progressive aspect - an overview
2.1 Achievements in the progressive
2.2 States in the progressive
3. Semantics and syntax of progressive aspect constructions
4. Progressive aspect in German, dialectal continental German, and Pennsylvania Dutch
4.2 Dialectal (continental) German
4.4 Progressive aspect in Big Valley, PA, and Holmes County, OH, Pennsylvania Dutch
7. Conclusions and directions for future research
Hybrid verb forms in American Norwegian and the analysis of the syntactic relation between the verb
2. Why the hybrid verb forms are really hybrid
4. Theoretical assumptions
5. The syntactic relation between T and V: Some (im)possible analyses
6. The syntactic relation between T and V: My analysis
Discourse markers in the narratives of New York Hasidim: More V2 attrition
4. The contact situation: English and Yiddish
7. Discussion of the data
7.3 Central Yiddish DMs: Yiddish compared to English
7.4 The innovative DM: Shoyn
8. Conclusions and explanations
8.1 V2 attrition on all three fronts
Maintaining a multilingual repertoire: Lexical change in American Norwegian
2.1 Theoretical background
2.2 Social influence on language contact phenomena
3. Three types of transfer
5. Results and discussion
How synagogues became shuls: The boomerang effect in Yiddish-influenced English, 1895-2010
2.3 Media geared toward young Jewish adults
3. Discussion and conclusion
Phonological non-integration of lexical borrowings in Wisconsin West Frisian
2.1 Data set and speaker profile
3. Community profile of language use
4. Modeling bilingual processing in a heritage community
5.1 Number, type and frequency of English tokens
6. Analysis and discussion
Borrowing modal elements into American Norwegian: The case of suppose(d)
3. Linguistic integration
4. Borrowing of functional words and grammatical features
5. On matter replication and pattern replication
6. Modality in Norwegian and English
7. The use of suppose(d)/[spoʊs], [spʊːst] in American Norwegian
V. Variation and real-time change
Changes in a Norwegian dialect in America
2. Coon Valley and Westby
4. An America-Norwegian koiné?
5. The language varieties
5.1 West Norwegian dialects
5.3 East Norwegian dialects
On two myths of the Norwegian language in America: Is it old-fashioned?
2. Is the Norwegian language in America archaic?
2.1 Data material: Informants
2.2 Investigation of pronouns
2.6 Conclusion on whether American Norwegian is archaic
3. Has the Norwegian language in America approached Bokmål?
3.1 Einar Haugen on the development of American Norwegian
3.7 Conclusion on whether American Norwegian has moved toward Bokmål
Coon Valley Norwegians meet Norwegians from Norway: Language, culture and identity
2. Background: The Norwegian language in the U.S.
4. Theoretical perspectives: Why narratives?
5. Identity as a social construction
6. Interactions in Coon Valley
6.2 Sylvia: “I don’t know how to say all that in Norwegian”
6.3 Other semiotic resources in identity construction
6.4 John and Eric: Hard-working Norwegians
6.5 The old school and community in Coon Valley
6.6 Identities as elderly people
7. Identity as Norwegians and Americans
8. Multilayered positioning work
9. Discussion and conclusion
Appendix: Transcription conventions
Variation and change in American Swedish
2.1 Interviews, questionnaires and elicitation
3. Dialects in American Swedish
3.1 Linguistic variation in Sweden in the 19th century
3.2 Dialects in earlier American Swedish
3.3 Dialect features in present-day American Swedish
3.4 Dialect leveling and language contact
4. Contact features in American Swedish
4.3 Syntactic constructions
5. Bilingualism at an individual level
5.1 Sources of impact on American Swedish
5.2 Edward and Shirley: Acquisition or attrition?
On the decrease of language norms in a disintegrating language
3.1 Question (I): Are the grammatical norms which hold for SD still recognized in AD?
3.2 Question (II): Are there any differences between the acceptability test
3.3 Question (III): Are there any differences between speakers
3.4 Question (IV): Is the existence of norms equally strong/weak in all parts of the system?
4.1 Question (V): Are there indications for the rise of a new norm in AD
Index of languages and dialects