Chapter
Principles of Forensic Science
What Is Forensic Science?
The Trace as the Basic Unit of Forensic Science
Forensic Classification of Evidence
Methods of Classification
Forensic Approaches to Classification
Uniqueness and Individualization
Relationships and Context
Interpretation/The Comparative Method
Analogy and Comparison within a Forensic Process
The Comparative Method within Forensic Science
Forensic Engineering/Accident Reconstruction/Biomechanics of Injury/Philosophy, Basic Theory, and Fundamentals
Occupant Kinematics and Related Concepts
Collection and Chain of Evidence
Accident Investigation—Determination of Cause
Material Properties in the Contact Area
Stiffness-Based and Mesh-Based Impact Models
Human Factors Investigation and Analysis of Accidents and Incidents
HFACS—A Human Factors Investigative Tool
Preconditions Analyst Actions
Adverse physiological states
Physical and/or mental limitations
Communication and information flow
Technological environment
Failure to correct known problems
Organizational Influences
Using HFACS to Identify and Address Threats to Quality and Safety
Major Incident Scene Management
Scene Control and Coordination
Approach to Crime Scene Investigation
Occupational Health and Safety
Systematic Collection of Potential Evidence
Systematic and Sequential Approach to the Search and Recovery of Potential Evidence
Crime Scene Analysis and Reconstruction
Crime Analysis and Reconstruction
Role of Physical Evidence
Reconstruction—Historical Perspective
Methods of Reconstruction
3. Transportation Investigations
Railroad Accident Investigation and Reconstruction
Types of Railroad Accidents
Procedural Steps to Follow in Railroad Accident Investigation and Reconstruction
Collision With Motor Vehicle or Pedestrian
Collisions Between Trains
Human Factors Considerations—Level Crossing Accidents
Aircraft Flight Data Recorders
Adversary Versus Technical Truth
Single Versus Multiple Causes
Approximate Versus Proximate Cause
Role of Evidence in Establishing Truth
Digital Versus Analog Evidence
Aircraft Flight Data Recorder History
Cockpit Voice Recorder Hostility
Evolution of Recording Processes
Installed Location of Flight Data Recorders
Underwater Locator Beacons
Public Access to Voice Recordings
Current Recorder State-of-the-Art
Cultural Repercussion of Recorders
Expanded Employment of Recorders
Air-Bag-Related Injuries and Deaths
Forensics of Air Bag Injuries
Electronic Data Recorders (EDRs, Black Boxes)
Background of Electronic Data in Ground Vehicles
Retrieving ECU NVRAM Data for Use in Crash Investigations
Method 1. Via a vehicle serial data link communication path to the vehicle diagnostic communication port
Method 2. Via a serial data link communication path connected via a direct umbilical cable to the target ECU
Method 3. Via a direct umbilical to the EEPROM component on the printed circuit board within the EDR assembly
The Use of ECU NVRAM Data in Crash Investigations
Analog Tachograph Chart Analysis
The Forensic Use of Tachograph Data
The Tachograph Instrument
The Principles of Chart Analysis
The Accuracy of the Speed Record
Calibration Checks on the Tachograph Installation
The “Route-Trace” Method of Calibration
Problems of Interpretation
Response of the Instrument
Falsifications and Diagnostic Signals
Traffic Injuries and Deaths
Injuries to the extremities
Whiplash-Associated Disorders
Airplane Crashes and Other Mass Disasters
Recovery of the Bodies at the Scene
Disaster Victim Identification
Criminalistic Reconstruction
Fire as a Chemical Reaction
Phase Change and Pyrolysis
Flammability Limits, Flash Point, and Fire Point
Introduction and Overview
Physical Thermodynamics: The Relevant Background
The first law of thermodynamics
The second law of thermodynamics
The Role of Thermodynamics in Fire Investigation
Fire: Ignition and Propagation
Thermal Power and Reaction Temperature
Thermodynamic Classification of Ignition Sources
Electrical sparks and arcs
Thermal Degradation Effects
Evidence Collection at Fire Scenes
Introduction and Overview
Sample Selection and Documentation
Evidence Collection for Other Types of Testing
Fire Scene Inspection Methodology
Introduction and Overview
Planning the Investigation
Initial Evaluation: Can This Inspection Be Conducted Safely?
Fire Patterns and Their Interpretation
Introduction and Overview
Ventilation-Generated Fire Patterns
Evidence Collection—Sampling Containers
Preliminary Examination of Fire Debris Samples
Extraction and Sampling Techniques
Direct Headspace Analysis
Passive/Dynamic Headspace Analysis
Effectiveness of Extraction/Concentration Methods
Interpretation of Fire Debris Analysis
Interpretation of Neat Liquids
Audio Enhancement and Authentication
Competency and Proficiency
Forensic Audio Enhancement
Critical Listening and Analysis
Preparation of Output File
Forensic Audio Authentication
Analog Tape Authentication
Digital Audio Authentication
Investigation and Analysis of Electrical Accidents
Investigation and Analysis of Structural Collapses
Biomechanics of Human Gait—Slip and Fall Analysis
Biomechanics of Human Gait
Body Segments in Locomotion
Static versus Dynamic Coefficient of Friction (Tactile)
Visual versus Tactile Sensation
Slip Resistance Measuring Devices
Trajectory of the Total Body Center of Gravity
Balancing the Center of Gravity of the Human Body
Gait Characteristics Influencing Slip Initiation, Detection, and Recovery
An Example of an Expert Witness Report
General understanding of the accident
Forensic Chemical Engineering Investigation and Analysis
Pollution and Toxic Substances
Ground and/or Water Pollution
Storage of Hazardous Materials
Unrecognized Hazards and Unexpected Consequences
Fire in an Empty Container
Flammable or Toxic Solids
An Explosive Pharmaceutical
Contamination of Food in Shipment
Corrosive and Reactive Chemicals
Materials Analysis and Failure Analysis
The Role of Materials Analysis in Determining Causation of Failure
Techniques for Determining Morphology
Microscopy in Materials Analysis
Specimen Preparation for Microstructural Examination
Analysis of failed structural steel using optical microscopy
Scanning Electron Microscopy
Analysis of a ductile iron pipe failure with scanning electron microscopy
Techniques for Determining Composition
The Physics of Spectroscopy
Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy
Wavelength-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy
Choosing between EDS and WDS
Using EDS to identify an unknown material
Auger Electron Spectroscopy
Analysis of process effluents using MS
Selecting the Appropriate Technique
Integrated Case Management
Forensic Laboratory Reports
Contents of a Report—A “Science” Standard
Contents of Report: Legal Standards
Reports: Stand-Alone Evidence or Support for a Testifying Expert
Ethical Considerations and Forensic Reports
Occupational Health and Safety Policy
Hierarchy of Control Measures
Specific Laboratory Hazards
Computer Forensics Laboratory
High-Intensity Light Sources
General Laboratory Management
Handling of Exhibits in Court
Chemical Biological and Radiological and Nuclear Incidents
Potential Hazards During an Overseas Deployment
Forensic Engineering
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