Chapter
Development of the Products and Industry
Non-Starch Polysaccharide Degrading Enzymes
1 Selection, engineering, and expression of microbial enzymes
1.2 Principal Applications of Microbial Industrial Enzymes
1.3 Increased Utilization of Recombinant Enzymes
1.4 Biomining for New and/or Improved Enzymes
1.5 Potential Role for Enzymes From Archaea (Extremozymes)
1.6 Genetic Engineering of Enzymes
1.7 Screening for Microbial Enzymes
1.9 Metagenomic Screening and Functional Screening of (Meta)Genomic Libraries
1.10 Conclusions and Perspectives
2 Intellectual property on selection, expression, and production of enzymes
2.2 Origins and History of Intellectual Property
2.3 Current Perspectives and Prospectives of Intellectual Protection and Rights
2.4 Intellectual Property Law in the United States
2.6 Global Intellectual Property
2.7.1 Protection by a Patent
2.8 Specific Aspects of Intellectual Property on Enzymes
2.9 Economic and Ethical Issues of Intellectual Property, Debates, and Trends
2.11 Other Subjects on Intellectual Property
2.11.1 Industrial Design Rights
2.13 Infringements—Patents, Copyright, Trademark, etc.
3 General aspects of phytases
3.2.2 Unit of Phytase Activity
3.2.3 History of Phytases
3.3 Classification of Phytases
3.3.2.1 3-Phytases (EC 3.1.3.8)
3.3.2.2 5-Phytase (EC 3.1.3.72)
3.3.2.3 6-Phytases (EC 3.1.3.26)
3.4.3 Mucosal Phytase Derived From Small Intestine
3.4.4 Gut Microfloral Phytases
3.4.4.1 Suitability of genetically modified phytases
3.5 Application of Phytase
3.5.1 Phytases as Food Additives
3.5.2 Phytases as Feed Additives
3.5.3 Production of Plant Protein Isolates and Concentrates
3.5.4 Source of Myo-Inositol Phosphates
3.6 Health Benefits of Phytases and Potential Concerns
3.7 Conclusion and Perspectives
4.2 Factors Influencing Phytase Efficacy
4.3 Efficacy of Dietary Phytase to Growth and Nutrient Utilization in Animals
4.4 Use of Phytase With Organic Acids
5 Perspectives of phytases in nutrition, biocatalysis, and soil stabilization
5.2.1 The Phytase Stake in Animal Nutrition
5.2.2 The Use of Phytase in Animal’s Diet—A Promising Alternative
5.2.3 Implications for Human Nutrition
5.4.2 Influencing Factors
II. Depolymerizating Enzymes
6 Depolymerizating enzymes—cellulases
6.4 Cellulose–Lignin Complex
6.6 Cellulases From Extremophile Microorganisms
6.7 Obtaining Bioactive Ingredients and “Nonclassical” Uses of Cellulases
6.8 Hydrolysis of Cellulose in Humans and Animals
6.9 Cellulases as Feed Additives
6.10 Perspectives for the Use of Cellulases in Food/Feed Applications
7 Laccases—properties and applications
7.2 Lignolytic Enzymes—Laccases
7.3 Selection, Production, and Properties of Laccases
7.4 Applications of Laccases
7.4.1 Decontaminating Properties of Laccases and Practical Applications
7.5 Synthesis of Bioactive Compounds by Laccases
7.6 Food Applications of Laccases
7.7 Feed Applications of Laccases
7.8 Laccases and Valorization of Plant Biomass
7.9 Conclusions and Perspectives
8.1 The Importance of Carbohydrates and Amylase in Human Nutrition
8.1.1 Amylases: Unity in Diversity
8.2 Amylases in Animal Nutrition
8.2.2 Amylases in Fish Nutrition
9 Nonstarch polysaccharide enzymes—general aspects
9.2 Specific Target Components for NSP-Enzymes
9.3 Classification of NSP-Enzymes
9.4 Cellulose Degrading NSP-Enzymes
9.5 Noncellulosic Polymers Degrading NSP-Enzymes
9.5.4 Pectic Polysaccharides Degrading NSP-Enzymes
9.5.5 NSP-Enzymes Production
9.5.6 Physiobiochemical Aspects of NSP-Enzymes
9.5.7 NSP-Enzymes for Industrial Purposes
9.5.8 Cellulase in Biopolishing
9.5.9 Noncellulosic Polymers in Biopolishing
9.5.10 Pectic Polysaccharides in Biopolishing
9.5.11 NSP-Enzymatic Degradation Mechanism of NSPs
9.5.12 Disruption of Cell Wall Integrity
9.5.13 Reduction of Digesta Viscosity
9.5.14 Effects on Bacterial Population
9.6 Conclusions and Perspectives
10 Depolymerizating enzymes in human food: bakery, dairy products, and drinks
10.2 Sources of Food Enzymes
10.3 Food Enzymes in the Baking Process
10.3.1.1 Carbohydrate hydrolyses
10.3.1.2 Kinetic and activity of α-amylase
10.3.2.2 Kinetic and activity of proteases
10.3.3 Hemicelluloses a Nonstarch Hydrolyses
10.3.5 Enzymes for Gluten-Free Products
11 Perspectives of nonstarch polysaccharide enzymes in nutrition
11.2 Application of NSP-Enzymes in Animal Nutrition
11.2.1 NSP-Enzymes Application in Industries
11.2.2 NSP-Enzymes Application in Food Processing
11.2.3 NSP-Enzymes Application in Aquaculture Nutrition
11.3 Mechanisms of NSP-Enzymes in Animal Nutrition
11.4 Opportunities and Strategies for the Production of NSP-Enzymes
11.4.1 NSP-Enzyme Characteristics
11.4.2 NSP-Enzyme Combinations, Substrate, and Product Identification
11.4.3 Genetic Engineering for Strain Improvement
11.4.3.1 Recombinant DNA technologies
11.4.3.3 Protoplast fusion
11.5 Conclusions and Future Perspectives
12 Proteases—general aspects
12.2 Classification of Proteases/Peptidases
12.2.1 Classification by Catalytic Type
12.2.2 Catalytic Mechanisms of Proteases
12.2.2.1 Serine peptidases
12.2.2.2 Threonine peptidases
12.2.2.3 Cysteine peptidases
12.2.2.4 Aspartic peptidases
12.2.2.5 Glutamic peptidases
12.2.2.6 Metallopeptidases
12.2.3 Classification by Homology
12.3 Occurrence of Proteases
12.4 The Digestion of Food Protein
12.6 General Nutritional Aspects
13.2 Proteases in Food Processing
13.3 Historical Use of Proteases
13.4 Proteases in the Dairy Industry
13.5 Proteases in the Baking Industry
13.6 Proteases in Meat Processing
13.7 Proteases in Fish Processing
13.8 Manufacture of Soy Products
13.9 Proteases in Processing of Protein Hydrolysates
13.10 Use of Proteases in Beer Brewing and Beer Stabilization
13.11 Synthesis of Aspartame
14.1 Proteases in Animal Feed
14.2 Use of Proteases in Processing of Protein Hydrolysates for Use in Animal Feed
14.3 Application of Proteases in Animal Feed
14.4 Environmental Aspects
15 Enzymes as therapeutic agents
15.4 Therapeutic Applications
15.5.2 Other Oncolytic Enzymes
15.6 Enzymes as Debriding Agents
15.7 Enzymes as Antiinflammatory Agents
15.8 Enzymes as Thrombolytics
15.9 Replacements for Metabolic Deficiencies
15.9.1 Enzymes as Digestive Aids
15.10 Superoxide Dismutase
15.11 Oral and Inhalable Enzyme Therapies
15.12 Enzyme-Replacement Therapy (ERT)
15.13 Enzymes as Nerve Agent Scavengers
15.14 Topical Enzyme Therapy for Skin Diseases
15.15 Enzymes in Infectious Diseases
16 Enzymes as direct decontaminating agents—mycotoxins
16.1.1 Enzymes as Decontaminating Agents
16.1.2 Enzyme Categories Based on Detoxification Nature
16.2 Enzymes for Decontamination of Mycotoxins
16.2.1 Mycotoxins Introduction
16.2.2 Types of Mycotoxins and Their Decontamination Process
17 Enzymatic decontamination of antimicrobials, phenols, heavy metals, pesticides, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, dyes, ...
17.9 Animal Waste Management
17.10 Conclusions and Perspectives
18.2 Applications of Chitinases
18.3 Selection and Production of Chitinases
18.6 Medical Applications and Biomarkers
18.8 Allergy to Chitinases and Latex–Fruit Syndrome
18.9 Perspectives for Chitinases
VI. Enzymes and new or alternative food- and feedstuffs
19 Alternative and new sources of feedstuffs
19.4.2 Other Applications of Algae and Derivatives
19.4.3 Algae as Invasive Species
19.5 Nonedible Plant Biomass (Lignocellulose)
20 Tyrosinases—physiology, pathophysiology, and applications
20.2 Physiological and Pathophysiological Roles of Tyrosinase
20.3 Applications of Tyrosinases
20.3.1 Tyrosinases—Food and Feed Applications
20.3.2 Tyrosynases, Removal of Phenolic Compounds, and Bioremediation
20.3.3 Industrial Applications
20.3.3.1 Tyrosinases and dye production
20.3.3.2 Tyrosinases for medical applications
20.3.3.3 Other applications of tyrosinases
20.4 Conclusions and Perspectives
21 Probiotics and enzymes in the gastrointestinal tract
21.2 Beneficial Effects of Probiotics in Humans and Animals and Variability of Results
21.3 Issues on the Utilization of Probiotics
21.4 Market Size for Probiotics and Main Producers
21.5 Safety Issues of Probiotics
21.6 Probiotics and Enzyme Activities in the GI Tract
22 Formulation of enzymes
22.2 Basis of Enzymes Formulation
22.3 Stabilization and Improved Resistance of Protein-Enzymes
22.4 Nutritional Enzymes and Specific Requests of Formulation
22.7 Gelatin, Microencapsulation, and Replacement
22.8 Perspectives and Conclusion
23.2 Enzyme Activity and Definition of Enzyme Activity
23.3 Enzyme Substrate and Its Influence on Analytics
23.4 Direct and Indirect Methods
23.5 Determination of Enzyme Activity in Formulated Products
23.7 Enzyme Assay and Specificity of Enzyme Assays
23.8 How to Overcome Interferences
23.9 Determination of Enzyme Activity in Premixes
24 Registration of food and feed additives (enzymes) in the United States, Canada, and China
24.2 Regulatory Management for Feed Ingredients and Additives in Some Big Countries
24.3 United States of America
24.5 People’s Republic of China
24.6 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
25 Evaluation of Enzymes for Animal Nutrition by the EFSA in the European Union
25.3 EFSA’s Role in the Evaluation of Feed Additives
25.4 Evaluation of Enzymes for Animal Nutrition
26 Economics of food and feed enzymes: Status and prospectives
26.1 Industrial Enzymes: A Global Market Overview
26.1.1 Global Enzyme Market, by Application
26.1.2 Global Enzyme Market, by Geography
26.1.3 Global Enzyme Market, by Enzyme Functionality
26.1.4 Industrial Enzymes Production
26.2 Economics of Food Processing Enzymes, by Application
26.2.1.1 Market structure and value chain
26.2.1.2 Key trends in starch and sugar enzymes
26.2.2.1 Baking enzymes pricing and cost-in-use
26.2.2.2 Market structure and value chain
26.2.2.3 Key trends in baking enzymes
26.2.3.1 Dairy enzymes pricing and cost-in-use
26.2.3.2 Market structure and value chain
26.2.3.3 Key trends in dairy enzymes
26.2.4.1 Brewing enzymes pricing and cost-in-use
26.2.4.2 Market structure and value chain
26.2.4.3 Key trends in brewing enzymes
26.2.5.1 Wine enzymes pricing and cost-in-use
26.2.5.2 Market structure and value chain
26.2.5.3 Key trends in wine enzymes
26.2.6 Fruit and Vegetable Processing
26.2.6.1 Fruit-processing enzymes pricing and cost-in-use
26.2.6.2 Market structure and value chain
26.2.6.3 Key trends in fruit and vegetable processing enzymes
26.2.7 Proteins Processing With Enzymes
26.2.7.1 Protein processing enzymes pricing and cost-in-use
26.2.7.2 Market structure and value chain
26.2.7.3 Key trends in protein enzymes
26.2.8 Oils and Fats and Other Food Enzymes Applications
26.2.9 Other Food Applications of Enzymes Not Reviewed in Detail
26.3 Economics of Feed Enzymes
26.3.1 Geographically the Feed Enzymes Market Is Structured as Follows
26.3.2 Economics of Feed Enzymes, by Enzyme Category
26.3.2.2 Nonstarch polysaccharides enzymes
26.3.3 Economics of Feed Enzymes, by Animal Category
26.3.3.4 Aquaculture and others
26.3.3.4.2 Others: Horse food, bird food, etc.
26.3.3.5 Market structure and value chain
26.3.4 Key Trends in Feed Enzymes
26.3.4.2 Animal categories
26.3.4.3 Regulation and consumer awareness
26.3.4.4 Research and development
27 General perspectives of enzymes, environment preservation, and scarce natural resources—conclusions
27.2 Economics of Industrial Enzymes
27.3 Classification of Feed Enzymes
27.4 Extremophile Organisms—Potential Sources for New Industrials Enzymes
27.5 Enzymes With Proven Performance In Vitro, Physiological and In Vivo Positive Effects—Phytases
27.6 Enzymes Sharing In Vitro and In Vivo Positive and Negative Effects—Chitinases
27.7 Lignocellulolytic Enzymes—Catalyzers With a Strong Potential of Applications
Enzymes in Human and Animal Nutrition
：Principles and Perspectives
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