Chapter
Forensic Classification of Evidence
Methods of Classification
Forensic Approaches to Classification
Uniqueness and Individualization
Relationships and Context
Interpretation/The Comparative Method
Analogy and Comparison within a Forensic Process
The Comparative Method within Forensic Science
Important Historical Milestones
Antiquity Middle Ages and Renaissance
Evolution from the Eighteenth to the Twenty-First Century
Evolution of Drugs and Poisons
Amphetamines and Designer Drugs
Recent Developments in Analytical Methods
Famous Criminal Poisoning Cases from the Fifteenth to the Seventeenth Century
Famous Criminal Poisoning Cases from the Nineteenth to the Twenty-First Century
Dr. Edme S. Castaing case 1823
Dr. George Henry Lamson case 1881
Affaire Marie Besnard 1949
Christa A. Lehmann case 1954
Toxicology: Overview and Applications
Applications of Forensic Toxicology
Initial Tests and Confirmation
Scope of Testing Protocols
Quality Assurance and Validation
Interpretation of Toxicological Results
Capillary Electrophoresis: Basic Principles
Fundamentals of Capillary Electrophoresis
Electrophoretic Mobilities
Electroosmosis and the Electroosmotic Flow
Electroosmotic flow Control
Modes of Separation in Electrophoresis
Electrophoretic Chromatography
Instrumentation and Sample Handling
Spectrophotometric methods
Mass spectrophotometric detection
Electrochemical detection
Capillary Electrophoresis in Forensic Chemistry
Explosives and Gunshot Residues
Chromatography: Basic Principles
Classification of Chromatographic Techniques
Chromatographic Distribution Equilibria
Band Broadening in Chromatography
Additional Comments on Band Broadening
Optimization of Chromatographic Performance
Liquid and Thin-Layer Chromatography
Column (or Liquid–Solid) Chromatography
HPLC and Ultrahigh-Performance Liquid Chromatography
Thin-Layer Chromatography
Liquid Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry
Sample Preparation and Injection Techniques
Overview of State-of-the-Art LC–MS Instrumentation
Application of LC–MS to Forensic Sciences
Gas Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry
Different Ways of Looking at Data
Nonchromatographic Separation Techniques
Purification via Chemical Reaction
Separation of Enantiomers
Ion Mobility Spectrometry
Identification of Substances
X-ray Fluorescence and Scanning Electron Microscopy–Energy-Dispersive X-ray
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy
Quantification of Substances
UV and Visible Spectroscopy
AAS and Atomic Emission Spectroscopy
Molecular Fluorescence and Chemiluminescence
Spectroscopy: Basic Principles
Electromagnetic Radiation and Light
Interaction Between Radiation and Matter
Instrumentation and Techniques
Molecular UV and visible absorbance spectroscopy
Molecular luminescence spectroscopy
Atomic absorption spectroscopy and atomic emission spectroscopy
X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy
Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy
3. Pharmacology and Drugs
Analysis of Controlled Substances
Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy
Thin-Layer Chromatography
High-Performance Liquid Chromatography
Quantitative Chromatographic Analysis
Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometry
Amphetamine and Amphetamine-Type Stimulants
Methaqualone and Meclaqualone
Phencyclidine and Analogues
Gamma-Hydroxybutyric Acid
Designer Drugs of Various Structural Types
2,5-Dimethoxyamphetamine Designer Drugs
2,5-Phenethylamine Designer Drugs (2C Drugs)
β-Keto Amphetamine Designer Drugs
Phencyclidine-Derived Designer Drugs
Piperazine-Derived Designer Drugs
Pyrrolidinophenone-Derived Designer Drugs
Fentanyl-Derived Designer Drugs
Tryptamine-Derived Designer Drugs
Synthetic Cannabinoids in “Spice”
Pharmacology and Mechanism of Action of Drugs
Affinity, Efficacy, and Potency
Antagonism and Potentiation
G-protein-coupled receptors
Transporters as receptors
Receptors with intrinsic enzymatic activity
Receptor Adaptation and Tolerance
Compensatory Responses and Drug Tolerance
Reduced Availability of Response Mediators
Volatile Substances and Inhalants
Interpretation of Analytical Results
Alcohol Congeners and the Source of Ethanol
Congener Content of Beverages
Isobutanol (2-Methyl-1-Propanol)
Herbal Psychoactive Substances
Traditional Drugs of Abuse of Herbal Origin
Cannabis and Tetrahydrocannabinol
Emerging and Popular Herbal Drugs of Abuse
Salvia (Salvia divinorum)
Iboga (Tabernanthe iboga)
Morning Glory and Lysergic Acid Amide
Herbal Medicines and Phytopharmaceuticals—Contaminations
Common Forms of Contamination/Adulterants
Inferior products or extraneous materials
Screening of blood cholinesterase activity
Chromatographic techniques
Analysis of Toxic Herbs and Conventional Medications
Whole Blood, Serum, and Plasma
Lysergic acid diethylamide
Abused Prescription Drugs
Nonbenzodiazepine drugs: zolpidem and zopiclone
Urine and Other Body Fluids
Analysis of Urine and Other Body Fluids for Alcohol
Alcohol in the Blood and Breath
Infrared Spectrophotometry
Electrochemical (Fuel Cell)
Types of Breath Alcohol Testing Instruments
Alcohol Ignition Interlock Device
Evidential Breath Alcohol Instruments
Blood to Breath Alcohol Ratio
Interpretation of EtG Concentrations
Interpretation of FAEE Concentrations
Factors Affecting Drug Presence in Oral Fluids
Applications of Oral Fluid Drug Testing
Analytical Testing Methods
Verification of History of Drug Use
Verification of Doping Practices
Regranting of Driving Licenses
Recent Trends about Contamination
Sample Collection and Chain of Custody
Postmortem Changes in Drug Concentration
Urine Specimen Characteristics and Specimen Integrity
Specimen origin identification
Specimen adulteration and evaluation parameters
Application of Immunoassays to Urine Drug Testing
Interferences and Cross-Reactivity
Targeted analytes from legal sources
Application of GC-MS in Urine Drug Testing
Acid and enzyme hydrolysis of conjugated drugs
Quantitative Determination
Correlation of Immunoassay and GC-MS Test Results
Issues in the Interpretation of Urine Drug Testing Results
Trauma, Medical, and Other Artifacts
Antemortem Blood and Serum
Chest Fluid and Pleural Cavity Fluid
Hair, Nails, Bone, Bone Marrow, and Cartilage
What Is Behavioral Toxicity?
Stimulants (Amphetamines and Cocaine)
Stomach Contents Analysis
Procedures for the Examination of Gastric Contents and Vomit Stains
Gastric Enzyme Screening Test
Measurement Error and Error Analysis
Measurement Uncertainty: A Forensic Example
Determining Measurement Uncertainty
Meaning Requires Uncertainty
Postmortem Toxicology: Artifacts
Interpretation of Results
Forensic Urine Drug Testing
Human Performance Toxicology
Drug Recognition Expert Programs
Postmortem Changes Affecting Toxicology
Drug Metabolism (Biotransformation)
Methods of Analysis—Initial Testing
Specificity and Cross-Reactivity
Cloned Enzyme Donor Immunoassay
Fluorescence Polarization Immunoassay
Chemiluminescence Immunoassay
Kinetic Interaction of Microparticles in Solution
Solvent Extraction (Liquid–Liquid Extraction)
Solid-Phase Microextraction
Gas Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry
Screening by Liquid Chromatography
HPLC with Photodiode Array Detector
LC–MS and Liquid Chromatography–Tandem Mass Spectrometry
Ion Trap or Triple-Quadrupole Mass Spectrometers
High-Resolution Accurate Mass Spectrometers
Mass Spectrometer Inlet Systems
Methods of Analysis—Confirmatory Testing
Principles of Confirmatory Testing
Certified Reference Standards
MS in Confirmatory Testing
Minimum Required Identification Criteria
Minimum Required Quantification Criteria
Agglomerative Hierarchical Clustering
Principal Component Analysis
A Framework for Inference
Measurements Are Not Necessarily True Values
Likelihoods Indicate Relative Support
Bayes' Rule Gives Probabilities of Hypotheses
Bayesian Decision Theory Selects between Hypotheses
Current Practices and Possible Improvements
Reporting an Exclusion, Match, or Inconclusive Result
Reporting Random-Match Probabilities and Frequencies
Reporting Likelihood Ratios Quantitatively or Qualitatively
Reporting Posterior Probabilities Quantitatively
Categorical Source Attribution
Integrated Case Management
Forensic Laboratory Reports
Contents of a Report: A “Science” Standard
Contents of a Report: Legal Standards
Reports: Stand-Alone Evidence or Support for a Testifying Expert
Ethical Considerations and Forensic Reports
Occupational Health and Safety Policy
Hierarchy of Control Measures
Specific Laboratory Hazards
Computer Forensics Laboratory
High-Intensity Light Sources
General Laboratory Management
Handling of Exhibits in Court
Chemical, Biological, Radiological, and Nuclear Incidents
Potential Hazards during an Overseas Deployment
Trauma, Medical, and Other Artifacts
Antemortem Blood and Serum
Chest Fluid and Pleural Cavity Fluid
Hair, Nails, Bone, Bone Marrow, and Cartilage
Drug-Facilitated Sexual Assault
The Role of the Forensic Medical Examiner/Forensic Nurse in DFC Cases
Interpretation of Toxicological Results in DFC
Influence of Drugs on Performance
Stimulants (Amphetamine, Methamphetamine, and Cocaine)
Central Nervous System Depressants
New Psychoactive Designer Drugs
Epidemiology and Crash Risk
Prevalence of Drugs in the General Driving Population or in a Subset of Drivers
Risks Associated with DUID
Detection of Drugs in Drivers
Checklists for Impaired Driving
Context of Adjudication of Anti-doping Rule Violations in Sport
The List of Prohibited Compounds and Methods to Be Screened
Biological Sample Identity and Integrity
Specific Procedures in Dedicated Laboratories
Validated Analytical Methodology
Practical Analytical Approach
The Specific Analytical Techniques Involved in Doping Controls
Main Analytical Techniques
Developments in accurate mass detection
Discrimination between Endogenous and Exogenous Doping Agents
Criteria for Identification
The Availability of Reference Doping Substances
Analytical Approach for Large Molecules and Peptide Detection
Developments for the Future
Forensic Toxicology
( Advanced Forensic Science Series )
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