Front Cover

Sustainable Composites for Aerospace Applications

Copyright Page

Dedication

Contents

List of Contributors

About the Editors

Preface

1 Materials selection for aerospace components

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Literature

1.3 Aerospace components

1.4 Material properties

1.4.1 Mechanical properties

1.4.2 Thermal properties

1.4.3 Economics

1.5 Materials selection

1.5.1 Ashby’s method of materials selection

1.5.2 Decision-making methods

1.5.3 Knowledge-based quantitative systems

1.6 Conclusions

References

2 The role of advanced polymer materials in aerospace

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Polymer composites

2.3 Advanced composite materials components

2.4 Aerospace structure and features

2.5 Components of an aircraft structure

2.5.1 The fuselage

2.5.2 Wing contents

2.5.3 Wing functions and attachments

2.5.4 The tail

2.5.5 Undercarriage

2.5.6 Engines

2.6 Aerospace composite materials

2.7 Manufacturing procedures for aerospace composites

2.7.1 Composite manufacturing using prepeg

2.7.1.1 Hand lay-up

2.7.1.2 Automated tape lay-up

2.7.1.3 Automated fiber placement

2.7.1.4 Resin transfer molding (RTM)

2.7.1.5 Vacuum-assisted resin transfer molded process

2.7.1.6 Filament winding

2.7.1.7 Pultrusion

2.8 Aircraft using composite materials

2.8.1 Lear fan 2100

2.8.2 Beech starship

2.8.3 Boeing

2.8.4 Airbus

2.8.5 Advanced tactical fighter

2.8.6 Advanced technology bomber (B-2)

2.8.7 Second generation British harrier “Jump Jet” (AV-8B)

2.8.8 Navy fighter aircraft (F-18A)

2.8.9 Osprey tilt rotor (V-22)

2.9 Advantages and disadvantages of composites in aerospace

2.9.1 Advantages

2.9.2 Disadvantages

2.10 Future of composites in aerospace and other space applications

References

3 Mechanical characteristics of tri-layer eco-friendly polymer composites for interior parts of aerospace application

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Objectives

3.3 Methodology

3.4 Experimental details

3.4.1 Materials

3.4.2 Fiber surface modification

3.4.3 Fabrication of composite

3.4.4 Tensile and flexural testing

3.4.5 Free vibration test

3.5 Results and discussion

3.5.1 Infrared spectrum analysis

3.5.2 Mechanical properties

3.5.2.1 Tensile strength

3.5.2.2 Flexural strength

3.5.2.3 Vibrational characteristics of different layering patterns on hybrid composites

3.6 Conclusions

3.7 Applications

Acknowledgments

References

4 Manufacturing techniques of composites for aerospace applications

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Composite fabrication processes

4.2.1 Hand lay-up

4.2.2 Spray lay-up

4.2.3 Resin transfer molding

4.2.4 Compression molding

4.2.5 Injection molding

4.2.6 Vacuum assisted method

4.2.7 Autoclave processing

4.2.8 Pultrusion

4.2.9 Filament winding

4.2.10 Comparison between manufacturing processes

4.3 Conclusion

References

5 Composite material overview and its testing for aerospace components

5.1 A short introduction to composite materials

5.1.1 Composition and classification

5.1.2 Towards the future

5.1.3 Typical defects and weaknesses

5.1.4 Failure mechanisms

5.2 Nondestructive inspection methods

5.3 The use of infrared thermography in the inspection of composites

5.3.1 Infrared thermography nondestructive evaluation

5.4 Pulse thermography

5.4.1 Estimation of defect size and depth

5.4.2 Evaluation of material porosity

5.5 Lock-in thermography

5.5.1 Estimation of defect size and depth

5.5.2 Unsteady-state conditions

5.5.3 Some examples of materials inspection with lock-in thermography

5.6 Some approaches to application in the field

5.7 Assessing the performance of new composite materials

5.7.1 On-line monitoring of impact tests

5.7.2 What to learn from ΔT images

5.7.3 Analysis of ΔT-time distribution

5.7.4 Evaluation of damage extension from ΔT images

5.8 Noise reduction and discrimination of small thermal stress coupled effects

5.9 Conclusion

References

6 Sustainable bio composites for aircraft components

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Advantages and drawbacks of using natural fibers in aircraft structures

6.2.1 Advantages

6.2.2 Drawbacks

6.3 Materials selection for sustainable aircraft interiors

6.4 Natural fiber-reinforced aircraft components

6.4.1 Bio composites for aircraft radome application

6.4.2 Bio composites for aircraft wing boxes

6.4.3 Bio composites for aircraft cabin interior panels

6.4.4 Bast fiber-reinforced green composites for aircraft indoor structure applications

6.5 Case study

6.5.1 Airbus: “Aim of Developing a Fully Recyclable Aircraft Cabin Interior”

6.5.2 Airbus helicopters

6.5.3 Boeing research

6.5.4 Process for advanced management of end-of-life of aircraft (PAMELA)

6.6 Conclusion

6.7 Future scope

References

7 Impact damage modeling in laminated composite aircraft structures

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Analysis of impact damage in aircraft structures from composite laminates

7.2.1 Impact loads

7.2.2 The mechanism of impact damage accumulations

7.2.3 The effects of impact damage

7.3 Finite element modeling of impact on laminates

7.3.1 Finite element method (FEM)

7.3.1.1 The implicit method

7.3.1.2 The explicit method

7.3.2 Impact on laminate plate

7.3.3 Impact models according to abrate

7.4 Multiscale modeling of impact damage on laminated composites

7.4.1 General

7.4.2 Explicit multiscale modeling of impact damage on laminated composites

7.5 Numerical simulation of impact on composite laminated structures

7.5.1 Numerical approach

7.5.2 Damage modeling with the finite elements

7.5.3 Modeling and simulation of projectile impact on carbon fiber-reinforced panels in software ABAQUS

7.6 Result analysis and discussion

7.7 Conclusions

7.8 Sources of further information and advice

References

8 Natural lightweight hybrid composites for aircraft structural applications

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Advantages of hybrid composites

8.3 Classification of fibers

8.3.1 Natural fiber

8.3.2 Synthetic fiber

8.4 Classification of matrix

8.5 Limitations of natural fibers

8.6 Processing techniques

8.6.1 Hand lay-up

8.6.2 Vacuum infusion method

8.6.3 Resin transfer molding (RTM)

8.6.4 Compression molding

8.7 Mechanical properties of natural/synthetic fiber hybrid composites

8.7.1 Effect of elevated temperature on hybrid composites

8.7.2 Effect of moisture absorption on hybrid composites

8.8 Applications of hybrid composites in the aerospace industry

8.9 Conclusions

Acknowledgement

References

9 Composite patch repair using natural fiber for aerospace applications, sustainable composites for aerospace applications

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Literature review

9.2.1 Structural patch repair

9.3 Composite materials

9.4 Kenaf fiber

9.5 Damage detection techniques

9.6 Methodology

9.6.1 Specimen fabrication

9.7 Lay-up process

9.8 Vacuum bagging process

9.9 Patch repair on carbon fiber-reinforced plastic specimens

9.10 Simulating damage on specimens

9.11 Kenaf patching

9.12 Application of repair plies

9.13 Compression test

9.14 Design and fabrication of a compression test jig

9.15 Compression test process

9.16 Tensile test

9.17 Damage detection

9.18 Results and discussion

9.18.1 Compression test

9.19 Tensile test

9.20 Piezoelectric sensor response correlates with mechanical test

9.21 Conclusion

References

Further reading

10 High performance machining of carbon fiber-reinforced plastics

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Drilling of carbon fiber-reinforced plastics composite

10.3 Ultrasonic drilling of carbon fiber-reinforced plastic composites

10.4 Hole-making of carbon fiber-reinforced plastics composite using a helical milling technique

10.5 Hole making of carbon fiber-reinforced plastic composite stack using a helical milling technique

References

11 Ultrasonic inspection of natural fiber-reinforced composites

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Defects of natural composite

11.3 Terms and description of defects in composite

11.4 Visual inspection and its limitations

11.5 Inspection types versus testing apparatus

11.5.1 Honeycomb bonding

11.5.1.1 Tap test

Procedure to conduct the tap testing

Calibration procedure

Inspection procedure

Evaluation procedure

11.5.1.2 Bond test

Preliminary setup

Standardization procedure

Inspection procedure for skin of honeycomb bonds

Evaluation procedure

Reporting procedure

11.5.2 Laminate

11.5.2.1 Display type

11.5.2.2 Pulse echo

11.5.2.3 Immersion through transmission

11.6 Other nondestructive testing methods

11.7 Conclusion

References

12 Potential of natural fiber/biomass filler-reinforced polymer composites in aerospace applications

12.1 Introduction

12.2 Reinforcements

12.2.1 Biomass fibers

12.2.1.1 Classification of agricultural biomass raw materials

12.2.2 Natural fibers

12.2.2.1 Chemical composition of natural fibers

12.2.2.2 Physical properties of natural fibers

12.2.2.3 Mechanical properties of natural fibers

12.3 Polymer composites

12.4 Natural fiber-polymer composites

12.5 Hybrid composites

12.6 Applications

12.6.1 Aerospace applications

12.7 Conclusion

Acknowledgments

References

13 The potential of natural composite materials in structural design

13.1 Introduction

13.1.1 Fiber-reinforced composites in aerospace applications

13.1.2 Natural fibers in structural applications

13.1.3 Natural resins

13.1.4 Natural fiber treatment

13.2 Materials and methods

13.2.1 Fiber

13.2.2 Resins

13.2.3 Composite processing

13.2.4 Characterization methods

13.3 Results and discussion

13.3.1 Characterization of double methacrylated epoxidized sucrose soyate resin

13.3.2 Fiber treatment

13.3.3 Accelerated weathering

13.4 Conclusions

Acknowledgements

References

14 Low velocity impact properties of natural fiber-reinforced composite materials for aeronautical applications

14.1 Introduction

14.1.1 Classification of natural fibers, polymers, and their properties

14.1.2 Selection criteria for natural fiber-based composites in aeronautical applications

14.2 Low velocity impact testing and its significance

14.3 Types of low velocity impact testing methods

14.3.1 Charpy test

14.3.2 Izod test

14.3.3 Drop weight impact test

14.3.4 Terms and commonly assessed parameters after impact tests

14.4 Factors affecting the low velocity impact properties of natural fiber-reinforced composites

14.4.1 Effect of impact energy

14.4.2 Effect of fiber architecture and matrix

14.4.3 Effect of chemical treatments and additives

14.4.4 Effect of hybridization

14.4.4.1 Natural-synthetic fiber-reinforced hybrid composite

14.4.4.2 Natural-natural fiber-reinforced hybrid composite

14.4.5 Effect of temperature

14.4.6 Effect of impactor and impact velocity

14.4.7 Effect of moisture absorption

14.4.8 Effect of manufacturing method

14.5 Role of finite element modeling (FEM)

14.6 Damage mechanism and failure behavior of natural fiber-reinforced composites

14.7 Limitations in implementing natural fiber-reinforced composites in aeronautical applications

14.8 Measures to overcome the limitations

14.9 Conclusion

References

15 Potential of natural/synthetic hybrid composites for aerospace applications

15.1 Introduction

15.2 Synthetic fibers

15.2.1 Glass fibers

15.2.2 Carbon fibers

15.2.3 Aramid fibers

15.3 Natural fibers

15.3.1 Sisal fibers

15.3.2 Jute fibers

15.3.3 Kenaf fibers

15.3.4 Hemp fibers

15.3.5 Coir fibers

15.3.6 Banana fibers

15.3.7 Bamboo fibers

15.3.8 Animal fibers

15.4 Survey on natural/synthetic fiber hybrid composites

15.5 Potential applications

15.6 Conclusions

References

Further reading

Index

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