Chapter
2.2. Comparison With Hydrogen Fuel Cells
2.3. Comparison With Direct Alcohol Fuel Cells
2.4. Comparison With Passive Alcohol Fuel Cells
2.5. Comparison With Solid Oxide Fuel Cells
2.6. Comparison With Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells
2.7. Comparison With Alkaline Fuel Cells
2.8. Comparison With Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells
2.9. Comparison With Existing Battery Technologies and Alternative Energy Resources
2.10. Further Information
2.11. Relevance and Outlook
Chapter 3: Configurations of Microbial Fuel Cells
3.2. Normal Configuration and General Requirements
3.2.1. Uncoupled Bioreactor MFC
3.2.2. Integrated Bioreactor MFC
3.2.3. MFC With Direct Electron Transfer
3.2.4. MFC With Mediated Electron Transport
3.3. General Requirements
3.4. Easy to Build Fuel Cell Configurations
3.4.1. Dual-Chambered H-Type MFC
3.4.2. Dual-Chambered MFC
3.4.3. Dual-Chambered MFC With Water-Soluble Catholytes
3.4.4. Simple Air-Cathode MFC
3.4.4.2. Cylindrical-Air Cathode MFC
3.5.3. Tubular Packed-Bed MFC for Continuous Operation
3.5.7. Origami Star-Inspired Fuel Cell
3.5.8. 3D-Paper Based MFC
3.6. Reactor Design and Efficiency
3.7. Operation and Assessment
Chapter 4: Polymer Electrolyte Membranes for Microbial Fuel Cells: Part A. Nafion-Based Membranes
4.2. Functions of the PEM in MFC
4.3. Property Requirements of the Membrane Materials
4.4. Fluorinated Membrane Structure Required for Efficient MFC Operation
4.5. Present Research on Nafion-Based Membranes
4.5.1. Nafion Blends and Composites
4.5.2. Nafion/Fluorinated Polymers
4.6. Membrane Characterizations
4.6.1. Structural Characterizations
4.6.1.1. X-Ray Diffraction
4.6.1.2. Imaging Techniques: Scanning Electron and Transmission Electron Microscopies
4.6.2. Ion-Exchange Capacity
4.6.3. Proton Conductivity
4.6.4. Mechanical Characterizations
4.7. Performance Evaluations
4.8. Existing Challenges of PEM Technology
4.8.3. Substrate Crossover
Chapter 5: Polymer Electrolyte Membranes for Microbial Fuel Cells: Part B. Non-Nafion Alternative Membranes
5.2. Present Research of Non-Nafion-Based Membranes
5.3. Conclusion, Existing Challenges, and Future Perspectives
Chapter 6: Bipolar Membranes for Microbial Fuel Cells
6.1. Introduction: Definition and General Description of the Use of Bipolar Membranes in Microbial Fuel Cells
6.2. Preparation and Application of Bipolar Membranes in MFCs
6.3. Conclusion, Existing Challenges, and Future Perspectives
Chapter 7: Low-Cost Solutions for Fabrication of Microbial Fuel Cells: Ceramic Separator and Electrode Modifications
7.2. Fundamentals of MFCs and Their Components
7.2.1.1. Anode Modification Using Conductive Polymers
7.2.1.2. Anode Modification Using Graphene and CNTs
7.2.1.3. Anode Modification Using Metal Oxides
7.2.1.4. Anode Modification by Electrochemical Oxidation
7.2.3. Current Collectors
7.3. Properties of Clay Used in Ceramic Separators
7.3.1. Mechanism of Cation Exchange Through Clay
7.3.2. Strengthening Clay-Based Separators
7.3.3. Modification of the Clay Mineral Composition to Enhance Cation Exchange
7.3.4. Ceramic Separators as a Low-Cost Solution for Electrochemical Devices
7.3.5. Performance of MFCs With a Ceramic Separator
7.4. Importance of ORR Catalysts and Related Mechanisms: Options for Low-Cost Cathode Catalysts
7.4.1. Nonmetal and Metal Impregnated Carbon Catalysts
7.4.2. Transition Metal Oxides
7.4.3. Metal Doped Complex Organic Catalysts
7.4.4. Cost Analysis of Catalysts
7.5. Scalable MFCs and Stacking
Chapter 8: Electrodes for Microbial Fuel Cells
8.2. Electrode Materials and Their Desired Properties
8.2.2. Durability and Stability
8.2.3. Porosity and Surface Area
8.2.4. Biocompatible Nature
8.2.5. Cost and Availability
8.3. Electrode Material Types
8.3.1. Carbon-Based Electrode Materials
8.3.3. Composite Electrode Materials
8.4. Surface Modification of Electrodes
8.4.1. Modification With Metals or Metal Oxides
8.4.2. Modification With Polymers
8.4.3. Modification With Composite Materials
8.6. Existing Challenges and Future Perspectives
Chapter 9: Anode Catalysts and Biocatalysts for Microbial Fuel Cells
9.2. Functions of the Catalysts
9.3. Property Requirements of Catalysts
9.4.1. Materials of Electrocatalysts
9.4.1.1. Carbonaceous Anode Based Materials
9.4.1.2. Metal Based Materials
9.4.1.3. Conducting Polymers
9.4.2.1. Bacterial Species Used as an MFC Biocatalyst
9.5. Catalyst Characterizations
9.5.4. RFLP, SSCP, and ARISA
9.6. Performance Evaluations
9.6.2. Cyclic Voltammetry
9.6.3. Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS)
Chapter 10: Propellants of Microbial Fuel Cells
10.2. Nutrient Requirements of MFC Microorganisms
10.3. General Characteristics of Different Fuels
10.3.1. Simple or Defined Substrates
10.3.2. Complex Defined Substrates
10.3.3. Complex Undefined Substrates
10.3.3.1. Activated Sludge and Algal Biomass
10.3.3.2. Agro Industrial Wastewater
10.3.3.3. Brewery Industry Wastewater
10.3.3.4. Dairy Industry Wastewater
10.3.3.5. Domestic and Municipal Wastewater
10.3.3.6. Food Processing Industry Wastewater
10.3.3.7. Livestock Industry Wastewater
10.3.3.8. Mining Industry Wastewater
10.3.3.9. Paper Plant Wastewater
10.3.3.10. Petrochemical Industry Wastewater
10.3.3.11. Pharmaceutical Industry Wastewater
10.3.3.12. Refinery and Distillery Industry Wastewater
10.3.3.13. Textile Industry Wastewater
10.4. Mechanism of Fuel Oxidation in MFCs
10.5. Comparison of the Efficiency of Different Fuels
Chapter 11: Exoelectrogens for Microbial Fuel Cells
11.2. Mechanisms of Electron Transfer
11.2.1. Mediated Electron Transfer
11.2.1.1. Endogenous Electron Shuttles
11.2.1.2. Artificial Electron Shuttles
11.2.1.3. Primary Metabolites
11.2.1.4. MET Mechanisms for Biofilms at the Cathode
11.2.2. Direct Electron Transfer
11.2.2.1. G. sulfurreducens: OMC Pathway
11.2.2.2. S. oneidensis: Mtr-Pathway
11.2.2.3. DET in Other Organisms
11.2.2.4. DET at the Cathode
11.3. Studies Using Known Exoelectrogenic Strains
11.4. Tools for Studying Exoelectrogens
11.4.1. Electrochemical Analysis
11.4.3. Biological Analysis
11.4.4. Raman Spectroscopy
11.5. Operational Conditions
11.7. Sources of Further Information
Chapter 12: Biofilm Formation Within Microbial Fuel Cells
12.2. Mechanism of Biofilm Formation
12.3. Electroactive Biofilms
12.3.1. Challenges of Electroactive Biofilms
12.3.2. Factors Affecting Electroactive Biofilm Formation
12.3.2.1. System Configuration
12.3.2.2. Operating Conditions
12.3.2.3. Biological Parameters
12.4. Conclusion and Future Directions
12.5. Sources of Further Information
Chapter 13: Genetic Approaches for Improving Performance of Microbial Fuel Cells: Part A
13.2. Electron Transfer in Life
13.3. Discovery of Genes Involved in Electron Transfer of MFCs
13.4. Metabolic Pathways Employed in MFC Systems
13.4.1.1. General Features
13.4.1.2. Procedures Assayed and Results
13.4.1.3. Future Possibilities
13.4.2.1. General Features
13.4.2.2. Procedures Assayed and Results
13.4.2.3. Future Possibilities
13.4.3. Other Heterotrophic Microorganisms
13.4.3.1. General Features
13.4.3.2. Procedures Assayed and Results
13.4.3.3. Future Possibilities
13.5. Other Metabolic Pathways Used in MFC Systems
13.5.1. Chemolithoautotrophic Metabolism
13.5.2. Photoautotrophic Metabolism
13.6. Naturally Assembled Microbial Communities to Improve MFC Performance
13.7. Artificially Assembled Anodic Communities to Improve MFC Performance
13.9. Sources of Further Information
Chapter 14: Genetic Approaches for Improving Performance of Microbial Fuel Cells: Part B
14.2. Substrate Processing and Accessibility
14.2.1. Directed Evolution of Redox Enzymes
14.2.2. Surface-Display Systems
14.2.2.1. Bacterial Surface-Display
14.2.2.2. Yeast Surface Display
14.2.3. Bioremediation of Contaminated Soil and Water
14.3. Improvement of Electron Transfer
14.3.1. Internal Electron Transfer
14.3.2. External Electron Transfer
14.4. Metabolic Engineering
14.5. Enzyme and Protein Engineering
14.5.1. Protein Immobilization
Chapter 15: Kinetics and Mass Transfer Within Microbial Fuel Cells
15.2. Modeling Approaches for MFCs
15.3. Case Study—1D Analytical Model for Continuous Operation
15.3.1. Model Structure and Flux Balance
15.3.2. Model Assumptions
15.3.3. Governing Equation and Boundary Conditions
15.3.3.2. Kinetics—Anode and Cathode
15.4. Adaptation for Batch Operation
15.5. Modifications for a Single Chamber Configuration
Chapter 16: Biochemistry and Electrochemistry at the Electrodes of Microbial Fuel Cells
16.2. Biochemistry and Electrochemistry at the Electrodes
16.2.1. Underlying Catabolic Pathways for Energy Generation From Microorganisms
16.2.2. Distinguished Electron Transport Mechanism
16.2.2.1. Direct Electron Transport
16.2.2.2. Electron Transport Through Mediators
16.2.2.3. Electron Transport Through Conductive Nanowires
16.2.3. Proton Transport Mechanism in MFCs
16.2.3.1. Cation Exchange Membrane
16.2.3.2. Anion Exchange Membrane
16.2.3.3. Bipolar membrane
16.3. Underlying Factors That Affect MFC Performance
16.3.2. Activation Losses
16.3.3. Bacterial Metabolic Losses
16.3.4. Concentration Losses
16.4. Anode-Microbe Interactions
Chapter 17: Wastewater Biorefinery Based on the Microbial Electrolysis Cell: Opportunities and Challenges
17.1.1. Global Energy and Water Security
17.1.2. Wastewater Biorefinery
17.1.3. Microbial Electrolysis Cell
17.1.5. Aim of the Chapter
17.2. Bioelectrochemical System
17.2.2.1. Microbial Fuel Cell
17.2.2.2. Microbial Electrolysis Cell
17.2.3. MEC Systems and Materials Used for H2 Production
17.2.3.1. Cathode and Anode
17.2.3.3. The MEC System for Tubing and Gas Collection
17.3. MEC Configurations and Factors Affecting H2 Production
17.3.1. Double-Chambered MEC Systems
17.3.1.1. High-Performance Double-Chambered MEC Reactor
17.3.1.2. Bio-Electrochemically Assisted Microbial Reactor (BEAMR)
17.3.1.3. Concentric Tubular Double-Chambered MEC Reactor
17.3.1.4. Enriched MEC Bio-Cathodes Using Sediment MFC Bio-Anodes
17.3.2. Single-Chambered MEC Systems
17.3.2.1. A Single-Chambered MEC System With a Flat Carbon Cathode and Brush Anode
17.3.2.2. A Cathode on Top a Single-Chambered MEC System
17.3.2.3. Up-Flow Single-Chambered MEC System
17.3.2.4. Bottle-Type Single-Chambered MEC System
17.3.3. Factors Affecting Production of H2 in MEC Systems
17.3.3.4. Conductivity of Solution
17.4. Thermodynamics of H2 Production and MEC Performance
17.4.1. H2 Production and Measurement in MEC Systems
17.4.3. Energy Yield of MEC Systems
17.5. Challenges and Opportunities in MEC Technology
17.5.1. Energy Losses in MEC Systems
17.5.1.1. Activation Losses in the MEC System
17.5.1.2. Coulombic Losses in MEC Systems
17.5.1.3. Concentration Losses in MEC Systems
17.5.2. Methanogenesis in MEC Systems
17.5.3. Economics of MEC Systems
17.5.4. Future Outlooks of MEC Systems
17.5.4.1. Technological Approach
17.5.4.2. Methanogenesis Inhibition
17.5.4.3. Pure Culture Versus Mixed Consortia Studies
17.5.4.4. Electrode Selection
Chapter 18: Microbial Fuel Cells as a Platform Technology for Sustainable Wastewater Treatment
18.2. Wastewater Treatment and Energy Needs
18.2.1.1. General Overview of Wastewater Treatment
18.2.1.2. Energy Consumption in Wastewater Treatment
18.3. Opportunities for Energy Recovery and Savings in Wastewater Treatment
18.3.1. Hydraulic Energy Recovery
18.3.3. Combined Heat and Power Systems
18.3.4. Biogas Generation (Anaerobic Digestion)
18.3.5. Microalgae Growth for Biofuels
18.3.6. Anammox Process (Novel Configurations)
18.4. MFCs—Efficiency Evaluations
18.4.3. Energy Efficiency
18.4.3.1. Estimated Energy Benefits
18.4.3.2. Comparison With Aeration Systems
18.4.3.3. Normalized Energy Recovery Concept
18.4.3.4. Energy Consumption in MFCs
18.4.3.5. Energy Payback Time
18.5. Existing Challenges
18.5.1. Microbial Kinetics
18.5.2. Electron Acceptors
18.5.3. Electrode Materials
18.5.4. Understanding of Power Density (Process Reliability and Stability)
18.6.1. Process Development
18.6.2. Resource Recovery Options
18.6.3. Large Scale Development
18.6.4. Integrated Processes
18.6.4.1. Integrating With Membrane Processes
18.6.4.2. Integrating With an Aeration Tank in a Conventional Wastewater Treatment Plant
18.6.4.3. Integration With Other Bioelectrochemical Systems
18.6.5. Biorefinery Configurations
Chapter 19: Microbial Desalination Cell Technology: Functions and Future Prospects
19.1.1. Water-Energy Crisis in Desalination
19.1.2. Microbial Desalination Cell—Harvester of Chemical Energy
19.2. Essential Concepts of a Microbial Desalination Cell
19.2.1. Operative Principle
19.2.2. Performance Factors: Analyses and Calculations
19.2.3. Microbial Desalination Cells Configurations
19.2.3.1. Air-Cathode Microbial Desalination Cell
19.2.3.2. Biocathode Microbial Desalination Cell
19.2.3.3. Stacked Microbial Desalination Cell
19.2.3.4. Recirculation Microbial Desalination Cell
19.2.3.5. Microbial Electrolysis Desalination Cell
19.2.3.6. Capacitive Microbial Desalination Cell
19.2.3.7. Upflow Microbial Desalination Cell
19.2.3.8. Osmotic Microbial Desalination Cell
19.2.3.9. Bipolar Membrane Microbial Desalination Cell
19.2.3.10. Decoupled Microbial Desalination Cell
19.2.3.11. Ion-Exchange Resin Coupled Microbial Desalination Cell
19.2.3.12. Five-Chambered Biocathode Microbial Desalination Cell
19.2.3.13. Modularized Filtration Air Cathode Microbial Desalination Cell
19.3. Materials Used in Microbial Desalination Cells
19.4. Performance and Efficiency of Microbial Desalination Cell
19.4.1. Polarization and Power Density
19.4.2. COD Removal Efficiency
19.4.3. Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy
19.4.4. Cell Potential (emf), Concentration Gradient, and Water Transport
19.4.5. pH and Electrolyte Conductivity
19.4.6. External and Internal Resistance
19.4.7. Hydraulic Retention Time
19.5. Functional Applications and Scaleup
19.5.1. Wastewater Treatment and Water Desalination
19.5.2. Water Softening and Metal Ions Removal
19.5.3. Groundwater Remediation
19.6. Challenges to MDC Technologies
Chapter 20: Coupled Systems Based on Microbial Fuel Cells
20.2. MFC-Coupled Wastewater Treatment and the Potential of MFC-MBRs
20.3. MFC-Complemented Anaerobic Digestion
Chapter 21: Commercialization Aspects of Microbial Fuel Cells
21.2. Potentials of MFCs for Commercialization
21.3. Prospective Sector(s) for MFC Applications
21.3.1. Wastewater Treatment
21.3.2. Powering Low Energy Devices
21.4. Global Status of MFCs Commercialization/Market Leaders in MFCs
21.5. Current Research Toward Commercialization
21.6. Challenges Toward Fruitful Commercialization (Lab to Market Bottleneck)
21.7. Future Predictions and Directions
Progress and Recent Trends in Microbial Fuel Cells
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