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Marine Mammal Ecotoxicology

Marine Mammal Ecotoxicology

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Contents

List of Contributors

Foreword

SECTION I: LEGACY AND EMERGING CONTAMINANTS IN MARINE MAMMAL POPULATIONS

SECTION II: EFFECTS OF TOXICOLOGIC AND CUMULATIVE STRESS ON MARINE MAMMAL HEALTH

SECTION III: IMPLICATION FOR MONITORING AND CONSERVATION OF MARINE MAMMALS

List of Abbreviations

I - Legacy and Emerging Contaminants in Marine Mammal Populations

1 - Organochlorine Contaminants and Reproductive Implication in Cetaceans: A Case Study of the Common Dolphin

INTRODUCTION

CASES OF REPRODUCTIVE FAILURE AND DYSFUNCTION ASSOCIATED WITH EXPOSURE TO OCS IN CETACEANS

CASE STUDY OF SHORT-BEAKED COMMON DOLPHIN IN THE NORTHEAST ATLANTIC

Study Design

Incidences of Reproductive Abnormalities and Disorders in Common Dolphins

Effects of Contaminants on Reproduction in Common Dolphins

PCB and Reproductive Implications for Common Dolphins

CONCLUSIONS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

REFERENCES

2 - Feeding Ecology Tools to Assess Contaminant Exposure in Coastal Mammals

CONTAMINANTS AND COASTAL MAMMALS

A NONLINEAR VIEW OF THE FATE AND TRANSPORT OF CONTAMINANTS TO COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS

USE OF STABLE ISOTOPES AS A CHEMICAL FEEDING ECOLOGY TOOL IN CONTAMINANT STUDIES

Statistical Approaches

Trophic Level Interactions

Nontrophic Level Interactions

Geographic Variation

Limitations and Considerations

ADDITIONAL FEEDING ECOLOGY TOOLS

CONCLUSIONS

REFERENCES

3 - The Effects of Oil Exposure on Cetaceans

INTRODUCTION

Properties of Oil

Exposure of Cetaceans to Oil

EFFECTS OF OIL ON CETACEANS

Range of Organismal Effects Following Oil Exposure

Organismal Effects Related to Specific Routes of Exposure

Inhalation and Aspiration

Dermal Exposure

Oral Exposure

Effects Observed in Other Relevant Species

Aquatic Species

Humans and Other Terrestrial Mammalian Species

Population Effects Following Oil Exposure

Unusual Mortality Events (UME)

Population Effects Beyond UME

FUTURE RESEARCH NEEDS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

REFERENCES

FURTHER READING

4 - Legacy Contamination in Estuarine Dolphin Species From the South American Coast

INTRODUCTION

ESSENTIAL AND NONESSENTIAL ELEMENTAL CONTAMINATION IN GUIANA AND FRANCISCANA DOLPHINS

THE SPECIFIC CASE OF MERCURY ACCUMULATION AND TOXICITY IN MARINE MAMMALS

POLYCHLORINATED BIPHENYL AND POLYBROMINATED DIPHENYL ETHER CONTAMINATION IN GUIANA AND FRANCISCANA DOLPHINS

APPLICATION OF BIOMARKERS OF RESPONSE TO ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTANTS IN DOLPHINS

FINAL REMARKS

REFERENCES

5 - Poly- and Perfluoroalkyl Substances in Marine Mammals

INTRODUCTION

GLOBAL DISTRIBUTION OF PFASS IN MARINE MAMMALS

TEMPORAL TRENDS IN THE BIOACCUMULATION OF PFASS IN MARINE MAMMALS

BOTTLENOSE DOLPHINS FROM CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, U.S. - A CASE STUDY

HEALTH-RELATED EFFECTS OF PFASS IN MARINE MAMMALS

FUTURE PERSPECTIVES

REFERENCES

6 - Impacts of Marine Litter on Cetaceans: A Focus on Plastic Pollution

IMPACT OF MARINE LITTER ON CETACEANS

Ingestion

Macrolitter Ingestion

Microplastics Ingestion

Entanglement

CURRENT EXISTING PROTOCOLS AND APPROACH FOR THE ANALYSIS OF MARINE LITTER

Stranded Organisms

Recommended Diagnostic Approach

Classification of Item Types

Identification of Microplastics in the Gastrointestinal Tract

Contamination Control

Free-Ranging Organisms

IDENTIFICATION OF PLASTIC ADDITIVES IN TISSUE SAMPLES: PHTHALATES DETECTION

Sample Collection and Analysis

Plastic Additives in Environmental and Cetacean Samples

DEVELOPMENT OF BIOMARKERS TO EVALUATE THE EXPOSURE OF PLASTIC ADDITIVE IN FREE-RANGING CETACEANS

A THREEFOLD MONITORING APPROACH TO DETECT MARINE LITTER INGESTION AND IMPACT IN CETACEANS

HOT SPOT AREAS OF MARINE LITTER FOR MARINE MAMMALS: THE CASE STUDY OF THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA

IDENTIFICATION OF THE SPECIES MOST THREATENED SPECIES BY MARINE LITTER

FUTURE DEVELOPMENT AND RECOMMENDATIONS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

REFERENCES

7 - Persistent Organic Pollutants in Cetaceans Living in a Hotspot Area: The Mediterranean Sea

INTRODUCTION

CASE STUDIES

Striped Dolphin

Organochlorine Compounds

Temporal and Spatial Trends

Epizootics

Brominated Compounds

Fluorinated Compounds

Common Bottlenose Dolphin

Organochlorine Compounds

Brominated Compounds

Fluorinated Compounds

Short-Beaked Common Dolphin

Organochlorine Compounds

Brominated Compounds

Fluorinated Compounds

Sperm Whale

Organochlorine Compounds

Brominated Compounds

Fin Whale

Organochlorine Compounds

Brominated Compounds

Fluorinated Compounds

CONCLUSIONS AND RESEARCH NEEDS

REFERENCES

FURTHER READING

8 - Pollutants in Tropical Marine Mammals of the Galápagos Islands, Ecuador: an Ecotoxicological Quest to the Last Eden

INTRODUCTION

CHEMICAL POLLUTION IN THE GALÁPAGOS MARINE RESERVE: AN INCONVENIENT TRUTH

GALÁPAGOS PINNIPEDS SAMPLING AND STUDY AREA

POP ANALYSIS

LEGACY PCBS VERSUS EMERGING PBDES

DIOXINS AND FURANS

THE RAISING OF DDTS: EXPOSURE AND BIOMAGNIFICATION

OTHER ORGANOCHLORINE PESTICIDES

ROLE OF OCEANIC AND ATMOSPHERIC TRANSPORT OF POPS

POP HEALTH RISKS

CONTAMINANTS OF EMERGING CONCERN IN THE GALÁPAGOS ISLANDS

CUPs

PPCPs

Antifouling Paints

Microplastics

Mercury

POLLUTANT MANAGEMENT AND CONSERVATION IMPLICATIONS IN THE LAST EDEN

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

REFERENCES

III - Effects of Toxicological and Cumulative Stress on Marine Mammal Health

9 - Field Sampling Techniques and Ecotoxicologic Biomarkers in Cetaceans

INTRODUCTION

FIELD SAMPLING TECHNIQUES IN CETACEANS

Stranded Animals for Ecotoxicologic Investigation

Ecotoxicologic Investigation in Free-Ranging Cetaceans: The Skin Biopsy Approach

SKIN BIOMARKERS IN THE CETACEAN’S WORLD

Protein Expression in Cetaceans’ Skin Biopsies

Gene Expression in Cetaceans’ Skin Biopsies

The Relevance of In Vitro (Cell Cultures) and Ex Vivo (Organotypic Cultures) Models in Ecotoxicology

The Relevance of Hormone Analyses in a Multidisciplinary Biomarker Approach to Ecotoxicologic Investigation

APPLICATION IN CASE STUDIES

Interspecific Variability

Biomarker Approach in Hot Spot Areas

Biomarker Approach in Sperm Whale Worldwide

CONCLUSION

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

REFERENCES

FURTHER READING

10 - Ecotoxicological Biomarkers and Accumulation of Contaminants in Pinnipeds

INTRODUCTION

MARINE MAMMALS IN THE NORTH SEA: CASE STUDY OF A POLLUTED AREA

ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY: WHERE ECOLOGY MEETS TOXICOLOGY

BIOMARKERS

Endocrine Dysfunction

Liver Function

Disease Surveillance

Hematology and Blood Chemistry

Immune System

Gene Expression

OUTLOOK

REFERENCES

11 - New Technologies for Monitoring Marine Mammal Health

INTRODUCTION

THE OMICS TECHNOLOGIES

Genomics

Transcriptomics

Proteomics

Metabolomics

Epigenomics

Toxicogenomics

OMICS OF THE MARINE MAMMAL WORLD

Marine Mammal Genome Projects

Omics Findings for Marine Mammal Health

Cetacea (Order: Cetartiodactyla)

Pinnipedia (Order: Carnivora)

Sirenia (Superorder: Afroheria)

New Technologies: Challenge and Progress

LINKING MARINE MAMMALS TO HUMANS: NEW RESOURCES FOR HEALTH

Applications of Modern Genomics Techniques: Metagenomics for Zoonoses

Applications of Marine Mammal Unique Adaptations: Marine Biomedicine

CONCLUDING REMARKS

REFERENCES

12 - Immunotoxic Effects of Environmental Pollutants in Marine Mammals

INTRODUCTION

MARINE MAMMAL IMMUNOLOGY

The Immune System: Innate Versus Adaptive

Immune Organs, Cells, and Proteins

Characterizing Immune Function

Innate Immunity: Phagocytosis

Innate Immunity: Respiratory Burst

Innate Immunity: Natural Killer Cell Activity

Adaptive Immunity: Lymphocyte Proliferation

IMMUNOTOXICOLOGY IN MARINE MAMMALS

Study Designs and Methodologies for Marine Mammal Immunotoxicology

Synthesis of Immunotoxicity in Marine Mammals

Pathology of Lymphoid Tissues

Altered Immune Function or Cell Populations

Altered Gene Expression

Altered Host Resistance to Disease

CONSIDERATIONS, CHALLENGES, AND FUTURE NEEDS

Reference Intervals

Marine Mammal Cell Lines

Marine Mammal Immune Cell Tissue Bank

In Vitro Extrapolation

Multiple Stressors and Population-Level Effects

CONCLUSIONS

REFERENCES

13 - Ecotoxicologic Stress in Arctic Marine Mammals, With Particular Focus on Polar Bears

CONTAMINANTS IN ARCTIC MARINE MAMMALS

Transport of Contaminants to the Arctic

Biomagnification and Biotransformation

Monitoring Contaminants in Arctic Marine Mammals

Individual Variation

Spatial Trends

Temporal Trends

EFFECTS OF CONTAMINANTS IN ARCTIC MARINE MAMMALS

Seals and Whales

Polar Bears

ARCTIC MARINE MAMMALS FACED BY THE GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE

COMBINED EFFECTS OF CONTAMINANT EXPOSURE AND CLIMATE CHANGE IN POLAR BEAR POPULATION

CASE STUDY: SYNERGISTIC EFFECTS OF SEA ICE DECLINE AND CONTAMINANT EXPOSURE IN POLAR BEARS FROM THE BARENTS SEA

Background

Study Design

Results

Sea Ice Conditions Around Svalbard Coasts

Polar Bears’ Feeding Strategy

Influence of Sea Ice on Polar Bears’ Diet and Body Condition

Sea Ice–Related Influence of Body Condition and Diet on POP Concentrations

Sea Ice–Related Influence of Diet and Metabolic State on PFAS Concentrations

Effect of Pollutants on Polar Bear Energy Homeostasis

Effect of Pollutants in Polar Bear Energy Homeostasis Using In Vitro and In Silico Approach

CONCLUSION AND PERSPECTIVES

REFERENCES

14 - Toxicological Risks and Considerations Associated With Lipophilic Contaminant Burdens of Southern Ocean Mysticetes

SYNTHETIC CHEMICAL CONTAMINATION OF THE ANTARCTIC REGION

THE ANTARCTIC SEA ICE ECOSYSTEM

FEEDING ECOLOGY OF SOUTHERN OCEAN MYSTICETES

Adaptation to the Polar Environment

BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLING OF POPS IN THE POLAR ENVIRONMENT

MYSTICETE POP EXPOSURE AND UPTAKE

TEMPORAL TRENDS OF SOUTHERN OCEAN MYSTICETE POP BURDENS

POP TOXICOKINETICS AND THE TOXICOLOGICAL RISK POSED TO SOUTHERN OCEAN MYSTICETES

Seasonal Cycles

Life Stages

Effects Assessment

Adjusted Risk Categories

ANOMALIES AND OPPORTUNITIES IN A CHANGING POLAR CLIMATE

Lipophilic Contaminants as Tracers of Energetic Health: A Case Study on Humpback Whales

CONCLUSION

REFERENCES

15 - Emerging Pathogens and Stress Syndromes of Cetaceans in European Waters: Cumulative Effects

INTRODUCTION

MORBILLIVIRUS

HERPESVIRUS

BRUCELLA AND OTHER BACTERIA

TOXOPLASMA GONDII

CANARY ISLANDS

Dolphin Morbillvirus

Herpesvirus

Brucella spp., Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae, and Toxoplasma gondii

CENTRAL MEDITERRANEAN SEA: ITALY

Morbillivirus

Herpesvirus

Brucella ceti and Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae

Toxoplasma gondii

CONCLUDING REMARKS

REFERENCES

FURTHER READING

16 - Ecotoxicology of the Sirenia in the Twenty-First Century

THE SIRENIA

TWENTIETH-CENTURY CONCERNS AND FINDINGS

Organochlorine Pesticides and Metabolites

Other Organohalogens and Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons

Heavy Metals and Other Toxic Elements

Biotoxins and Harmful Algal Blooms

TWENTY-FIRST-CENTURY FINDINGS AND CONCERNS

Organochlorine Pesticides and Metabolites

Other Organohalogens and PAHs

Heavy Metals and Other Toxic Elements

Biotoxins and Harmful Algal Blooms

CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH

FINAL REMARKS

REFERENCES

III - Implication for Monitoring and Conservation of Marine Mammals

17 - Marine Mammals and Multiple Stressors: Implications for Conservation and Policy

INTRODUCTION

AN INVENTORY OF THREATS

AN EXAMPLE OF A COMPLEXITY: CLIMATE CHANGE

ENGAGING WITH MULTIPLE STRESSORS

THE LATEST WORK ON CUMULATIVE EFFECTS

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

REFERENCES

Index

A

B

C

D

E

F

G

H

I

J

K

L

M

N

O

P

Q

R

S

T

U

V

W

Y

Z

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