Front Cover

Postharvest Disinfection of Fruits and Vegetables

Copyright

Dedication

Contents

Contributors

About the Editor

Preface

Chapter 1: Postharvest Diseases of Fruits and Vegetables and Their Management

1. Introduction

2. Pathogens Causing Postharvest Diseases

3. The Infection Process

3.1. Preharvest Infection

3.2. Postharvest Infection

3.2.1. Floral Infection

3.2.2. Stem-End Infection

3.2.3. Quiescent Infection

4. Factors Affecting the Development of Infection

5. Management of Postharvest Diseases of Fruits and Vegetables

5.1. Physical Treatments

5.1.1. Use of Gamma Irradiation

5.1.2. Use of Low Temperature

5.1.3. Heat Treatment of the Produce

5.2. Chemical Treatments

5.2.1. Preharvest Chemical Treatments

5.2.2. Sanitation

5.2.3. Postharvest Chemical Treatments

5.2.4. Plant Growth Regulators

5.2.5. Methods of Application

5.2.5.1. Dipping

5.2.5.2. Electrostatic Sprays

5.2.5.3. Dusting

5.2.5.4. Fumigation

5.2.5.5. Chemical Pads

5.3. Biological Control

5.3.1. Development and Use of Resistant Varieties

5.3.2. Manipulation of Resistance Responses in Harvested Commodities

5.3.2.1. Wound Healing

5.3.2.2. Enzyme Inhibitors

5.3.2.3. Induction of Resistance

5.3.2.4. Polyamine Biosynthesis Inhibitors

5.3.3. Natural Plant Products for Biological Control

5.3.4. Use of Microbial Antagonists

5.3.4.1. Natural Antagonists

5.3.4.2. Artificially Introduced Antagonists

5.3.4.2.1. Mode of Action of Microbial Antagonists

5.3.4.2.2. Enhancing the Bio-Efficacy of Microbial Antagonists

6. Future Line of Work

References

Further Reading

Chapter 2: Peracetic Acid in Disinfection of Fruits and Vegetables

1. Introduction

2. Physicochemical Characteristics

3. Mode of Action

4. Antimicrobial Activity

5. Peracetic Acid Mixtures

6. Sensory Effects

7. Regulatory Status

8. Conclusions

References

Chapter 3: Electrolyzed Water Application in Fresh Produce Sanitation

1. Introduction

2. History and Terminology

3. Production of Electrolyzed Water

4. The Advantages and Disadvantages of Electrolyzed Water

5. The Mechanisms of Antimicrobial Activity of Electrolyzed Water

6. The Effect of Electrolyzed Water on Pre- and Postharvest Microorganisms Inactivation

7. The Effect of Electrolyzed Water on Bacterial Inactivation on Fresh Produce

8. The Effect of Electrolyzed Water on Plant Physiology and Quality

8.1. Induce Resistance

8.2. Quality Changes

8.3. Regulation

9. Future of Electrolyzed Water

References

Chapter 4: Hydrogen Peroxide (H2O2) for Postharvest Fruit and Vegetable Disinfection

1. Introduction

2. Concentrations and Combined Treatment

3. Mechanism of Disinfection of H2O2

4. Influence of Hydrogen Peroxide on Nutritional Compounds, Quality Factors, and Sensorial Aspects

5. Performance of Hydrogen Peroxide Based on the Application Methods

6. Application Methods

7. Conclusion

References

Chapter 5: Ultrasonic Processing Technology for Postharvest Disinfection

1. Introduction

2. Physical Principles of Ultrasound in an Aqueous Medium

3. Effects of Ultrasound on Spoilage and Pathogenic Microorganisms

4. Effect of Ultrasound on Endogenous Enzymes

5. Effects of Ultrasound on Nutritional and Quality Parameters of Fruits and Vegetables

5.1. Physicochemical and Physiological Properties

5.2. Changes in Sensorial Properties and Shelf Life

6. Conclusions

References

Further Reading

Chapter 6: Use of Irradiation for Postharvest Disinfection of Fruits and Vegetables

1. Introduction

2. Sources of Irradiation Used in Food Preservation

2.1. Electron Beams

2.2. X-Ray Irradiation

2.3. Gama Irradiation

3. Applications of Irradiation in Fruits and Vegetables

3.1. Disinfestation of Insect Pests

3.2. Sprouting Inhibition of Stored Tubers, Roots, and Bulb Crops

3.3. Prevention and Destruction of Microorganisms Associated With Fruits and Vegetables

3.4. Inhibition of Fruit Ripening and Senescence

4. Conclusion

References

Chapter 7: UV Treatment of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables

1. Introduction

2. Generation of UV

3. Xenon Arc Lamps

4. Short Wave UV Lamps

5. Gas Discharge Lamps

6. UV Light-Emitting Diodes

7. UV Lasers

8. UV Installations for Fruits and Vegetables

9. FoodSafe IL by Sanuvox

10. Smartclean UV

11. Reyco Systems

12. Advantages of UV Treatment

13. Microbial Inactivation

14. Pulsed Light

15. Application of UV on Fresh Fruits and Vegetables

16. Hormesis

17. Control of Senescence

18. Effect on Firmness

19. Control on Ripening

20. Changes in Color

21. Changes in Bioactive Compounds

22. Reduction in Diseases

23. Application of UV on Fresh-Cut Fruits and Vegetables

24. Synergistic Effects

25. Adverse Effects

26. Disadvantages of UV-C Treatment

27. Conclusions

References

Further Reading

Chapter 8: Ultrasound Techniques in Postharvest Disinfection of Fruits and Vegetables

1. Introduction

1.1. Mechanism

1.2. Types of Ultrasonication

1.3. Methods of Ultrasonication in Food Disinfection

2. Effects of Ultrasonication

2.1. Inactivation of Microbes

2.2. Enzyme Inactivity

3. Influence of Ultrasound Technique on the Quality Indicators of Fruits and Vegetables

3.1. Effect on Bioactivity and Functionalities of Fruits and Vegetables

3.2. Effect on Organoleptic Properties and Consumer Acceptance

4. Conclusion

References

Further Reading

Chapter 9: Heat Treatment of Fruits and Vegetables

1. Introduction

2. Methods of Heat Treatment

2.1. Hot Water Treatment

2.2. Vapor Heat Treatment

2.3. Hot Air Treatment

3. Response of Commodity to Heat Treatment

3.1. Disease Control

3.2. Insect-Pest Control

3.3. Ripening

3.4. Tolerance to Chilling Injury

3.5. Tissue Softening

3.6. Flavor Components

3.7. Aroma Volatiles

3.8. Color Changes

3.9. Respiration Rate

3.10. Thermotolerance

4. Combination Treatment Involving Heat Treatment

5. Heat Injury

6. Conclusion

References

Chapter 10: Cold Plasma Technology for Surface Disinfection of Fruits and Vegetables

1. Introduction

2. Physics and Chemistry of Cold Plasma

3. Types of Cold Plasma

3.1. Remote Cold Plasma System

3.2. Direct Cold Plasma System

3.3. Electrode Contact System

4. Mode of Action

4.1. Inactivation Mechanism

5. Applications of Cold Plasma Technology

6. Advantages Versus Limitations of Cold Plasma Technology

7. Conclusion

References

Chapter 11: Plant-Based Antimicrobial Formulations

1. Introduction

1.1. Mechanism of Action of Plant Secondary Compounds

1.2. Classification of Plant Secondary Compounds

1.2.1. Phenolics

1.2.2. Terpenes

1.2.3. Alkaloids

2. Antimicrobial Potential of Plants

2.1. Clove (Eugenia caryophyllata)

2.2. Cinnamon (Cinnamomum verum)

2.3. Nutmeg (Myristica fragrans)

2.4. Oregano (Origanum vulgare)

2.5. Onion (Allium cepa)

2.6. Garlic (Allium sativum)

2.7. Banana

2.8. Niepa Bark Tree

2.9. Eucalyptus, Shatavari, and Terminalia chebula

2.10. Cassia (Cassia alata)

2.11. Marigold (Tagetus erecta)

2.12. Aloe vera

3. Antimicrobial Delivery System

3.1. Nanoscale Antimicrobial Delivery Systems for Food Preservation

3.2. Nanoencapsulation-Based Antimicrobial Systems for Food Preservation

3.3. Emulsifiers

3.4. Multilayer Coatings

4. Commercial Applications of Plant-Based Antimicrobial

4.1. Washing Chemicals for Fruits and Vegetables

4.1.1. Aussan

Advantages of Aussan

4.1.2. CitroFresh

4.1.3. Citrox

Advantages of Citrox

4.2. As Food Preservative

4.3. As Edible Coatings

4.3.1. Mode of Applications of Natural Antimicrobial Agents

4.3.1.1. Direct Application

4.3.1.2. Indirect Application

4.3.2. Functional Properties of an Edible Coating

5. Conclusions

References

Further Reading

Chapter 12: Chitosan for Postharvest Disinfection of Fruits and Vegetables

1. Introduction

2. Chitosan

3. Properties

4. Fungicidal Activity

4.1. In Vitro Assessments

4.2. In Vivo Assessments

5. Chitosan Capacity as a Bactericide in Fruits and Vegetables

6. Chitosan Capacity as an Antiviricide in Fruits and Vegetables

7. Concluding Remarks

References

Further Reading

Chapter 13: Gaseous Chlorine Dioxide for Postharvest Treatment of Produce

1. Introduction

2. Generation and Implementation of Gaseous Chlorine Dioxide

3. Antimicrobial Effect of Gaseous ClO2 Treatment

3.1. Bacterial Reduction

3.2. Fungal Reduction

3.3. Antiviral Effect

3.4. Antimicrobial Mechanisms

4. Increases in Shelf Life Following Gaseous ClO2 Treatment

5. Sensory Attributes

6. Conclusions

References

Chapter 14: Sodium and Calcium Hypochlorite as Postharvest Disinfectants for Fruits and Vegetables

1. Introduction

2. Disinfection: Definition and Objectives

3. Disinfection by Chlorination

4. Forms of Chlorine Used for Fresh Fruits and Vegetables

4.1. Chlorine Gas (Cl2)

4.2. Calcium Hypochlorite (CaCl2O2)

4.3. Sodium Hypochlorite (NaOCl)

4.4. Chlorine Dioxide (ClO2)

5. Sodium and Calcium Hypochlorites: As Disinfectants

5.1. Advantages and Disadvantages

5.2. Sodium Hypochlorite (NaOCl)

5.3. Calcium Hypochlorite

5.4. Postharvest Applications of Sodium and Calcium Hypochlorites

6. Important Considerations for Proper Chlorine Disinfection

6.1. Source of Water

6.2. Temperature

6.3. Organic Matter

6.4. Concentration of Disinfectant and Exposure Time

6.5. Sensitivity of Microorganisms

6.6. Types of Produce

6.7. Improving Chlorination Efficacy (by Using Surfactants)

6.8. pH of Chlorine Solution

6.9. Monitoring, Control, and Documentation Processes

6.10. Oxidation-Reduction Potential

6.11. Other Important Considerations

7. Chlorination of Minimally Processed Fruits and Vegetables

8. Toxicity

9. Dietary Exposure

10. Environmental Fate

11. Legal Concerns

12. Conclusion

References

Further Reading

Chapter 15: Commercial Disinfectants in Skirmishing Postharvest Diseases

1. Introduction

2. Role of Disinfectants in Postharvest Disease Management

3. Chlorine Compounds

3.1. Hypochlorite

3.2. Chlorine Dioxide

3.3. Ozone

3.4. Ethanol

3.5. Electrolyzed Water

4. Role of Fungicides in Postharvest Disease Management

5. Fungicides

5.1. Thiabendazole

5.2. Benomyl

5.3. Carbendazim

5.4. Dichloran

5.5. Imazalil

5.6. Iprodione

5.7. O-Phenylphenol

5.8. Diphenylamine

5.9. Ethoxyquin

5.10. Fenhexamid

5.11. Etaconazole

5.12. Vinclozolin

5.13. Guazatine

5.14. Captan

5.15. Biphenyl

6. Role of Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) Compounds in Postharvest Disease Management

6.1. GRAS

6.1.1. Hydrogen Peroxide

6.1.2. Sanosil-25

6.1.3. Acetic Acid

6.1.4. Oxalic Acid

6.1.5. Cinnamic Acid

6.1.6. Malic Acid

6.1.7. Bicarbonate and Carbonate Salts

6.1.8. Sugar Analogs

7. Role of Natural Chemical Compounds in Postharvest Disease Management

7.1. Acetaldehyde

7.2. Hinokitiol

7.3. Essential Oils and Plant Extracts

7.4. Glucosinolates

8. Commercially Used Disinfectants in Postharvest Management

8.1. Vegetable Cleaners

8.2. Kent Fruit and Vegetable Washer

8.3. Features

8.4. Areas of Application

8.5. Working Principle

8.6. Microdyn and Bacdyn

8.7. Biowish

8.8. Sin-Bac

8.9. Fit Fruit and Vegetable Wash

8.10. Veggie Wash

8.11. Belshaw Fruit and Vegetable Wash

9. Different Methods of Application of Disinfectants

9.1. Fruit Drenches

9.2. Dump Tank Sanitation

9.3. Acidified Dump Tank Water

References

Further Reading

Index

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