Chapter
1.2.2.1 Problems Generated by Asphaltenes
1.4 Sulfur in Petroleum Major Refinery Products
1.6 Legislative Regulations of Sulfur Levels in Fuels
2 Desulfurization Technologies
List of Abbreviations and Nomenclature
2.3 Oxidative Desulfurization
2.5 Biocatalytic Desulfurization
3 Biodesulfurization of Natural Gas
List of Abbreviations and Nomenclature
3.2 Natural Gas Processing
3.3 Desulfurization Processes
3.3.3 Liquid Redox Processes
3.3.4.1 Classic Claus Plant
3.3.4.2 Split-Flow Claus Plant
3.3.4.3 Oxygen Enrichment Claus Plant
3.3.4.4 Claus Plant Tail Gas
3.3.5 Absorption/Desorption Process
3.3.6.1 Photoautotrophic Bacteria
3.3.6.2 Heterotrophic Bacteria
3.3.6.3 Chemotrophic Bacteria
3.3.7 Other Approaches Concerning the Biodesulfurization of Natural Gas
4 Microbial Denitrogenation of Petroleum and its Fractions
List of Abbreviations and Nomenclature
4.2 Denitrogenation of Petroleum and its Fractions
4.2.1 Hydrodenitrogenation
4.2.2 Adsorptive Denitrogenation
4.2.3 Extractive and Catalytic Oxidative Denitrogenation
4.3 Microbial Attack of Nitrogen Polyaromatic Heterocyclic Compounds (NPAHs)
4.4 Enhancing Biodegradation of NPAHs by Magnetic Nanoparticles
4.5 Challenges and Opportunities for BDN in Petroleum Industries
5 Bioadsorptive Desulfurization of Liquid Fuels
List of Abbreviations and Nomenclature
5.2 ADS by Agroindustrial-Wastes Activated Carbon
5.3 ADS on Modified Activated Carbon
5.4 ADS on Carbon Aerogels
5.5 ADS on Activated Carbon Fibers
5.6 ADS on Natural Clay and Zeolites
5.7 ADS on New Adsorbents Prepared from Different Biowastes
6 Microbial Attack of Organosulfur Compounds
List of Abbreviations and Nomenclature
6.2 Biodegradation of Sulfur Compounds in the Environment
6.3 Microbial Attack on Non–Heterocyclic Sulfur–Containing Hydrocarbons
6.3.1 Alkyl and Aryl Sulfides
6.3.2 Non – Aromatic Cyclic Sulfur – Containing Hydrocarbons
6.4 Microbial Attack of Heterocyclic Sulfur – Hydrocarbons
6.4.2 Benzothiophenes and Alkyl-Substituted Benzothiophenes
6.4.4 Dibenzothiophene and Alkyl-Substituted Dibenzothiophenes
6.4.4.1 Aerobic Biodesulfurization of DBT
6.4.4.2 Aerobic Biodesulfurization of Alkylated DBT
6.4.4.3 Anaerobic Biodesulfurization of DBT
6.5 Recent Elucidated DBT-BDS Pathways
7 Enzymology and Genetics of Biodesulfurization Process
List of Abbreviations and Nomenclature
7.2 Genetics of PASHs BDS Pathway
7.2.1 Anaerobic BDS Pathway
7.2.2 Aerobic BDS Pathway
7.2.2.2 Complete Degradation Pathway
7.3 The Desulfurization dsz Genes
7.4 Enzymes Involved in Specific Desulfurization of Thiophenic Compounds
7.4.1.1 DszC Enzyme (DBT-Monooxygenase)
7.4.1.2 DszA Enzyme (DBTO2-Monooxygenase)
7.4.1.3 DszB Enzyme (HBPS- Desulfinase)
7.4.1.4 DszD Enzyme (Flavin-Oxidoreductase Enzyme)
7.5 Repression of dsz Genes
7.6 Recombinant Biocatalysts for BDS
8 Factors Affecting the Biodesulfurization Process
List of Abbreviations and Nomenclature
8.2 Effect of Incubation Period
8.3 Effect of Temperature and pH
8.4 Effect of Dissolved Oxygen Concentration
8.5 Effect of Agitation Speed
8.6 Effect of Initial Biomass Concentration
8.7 Effect of Biocatalyst Age
8.8 Effect of Mass Transfer
8.10 Effect of Initial Sulfur Concentration
8.11 Effect of Type of S-Compounds
8.12 Effect of Organic Solvent and Oil to Water Phase Ratio
8.13 Effect of Medium Composition
8.14 Effect of Growing and Resting Cells
8.15 Inhibitory Effect of Byproducts
8.16 Statistical Optimization
9 Kinetics of Batch Biodesulfurization Process
List of Abbreviations and Nomenclature
9.2.1 Phases of Microbial Growth
9.2.1.3 The Stationary Phase
9.2.1.4 The Decline Phase
9.2.2 Modeling of Population Growth as a Function of Incubation Time
9.3 Microbial Growth Kinetics
9.3.1 Exponential Growth Model
9.3.2 Logistic Growth Model
9.4 Some of the Classical Kinetic Models Applied in BDS-Studies
9.5 Factors Affecting the Rate of Microbial Growth
9.5.1 Effect of Temperature
9.6.1 Basic Enzyme Reactions
9.6.2 Factors Affecting the Enzyme Activity
9.6.2.1 Enzyme Concentration
9.6.2.2 Substrate Concentration
9.6.2.3 Effect of Inhibitors on Enzyme Activity
9.6.2.4 Effect of Temperature
9.7 Michaelis-Menten Equation
9.7.1 Direct Integration Procedure
9.7.2 Lineweaver-Burk Plot Method
9.8 Kinetics of a Multi-Substrates System
9.9 Traditional 4S-Pathway
9.9.1 Formulation of a Kinetic Model for DBT Desulfurization According to 4S-Pathway
9.10 Different Kinetic Studies on the Parameters Affecting the BDS Process
9.11 Evaluation of the Tested Biocatalysts
9.11.1 Kinetics of the Overall Biodesulfurization Reaction
9.11.2 Maximum Percentage of Desulfurization (XBDS MAX %)
9.11.3 Time for Maximum Biodesulfurization tBDSmax (min)
9.11.4 Initial DBT Removal Rate RDBT O (ìmol/L/min)
9.11.5 Maximum Productivity PBDS MAX (%/min)
9.11.6 Specific Conversion Rate (SE %L/g/min)
10 Enhancement of BDS Efficiency
List of Abbreviations and Nomenclature
10.2 Isolation of Selective Biodesulfurizing Microorganisms with Broad Versatility on Different S-Compounds
10.2.1 Anaerobic Biodesulfurizing Microorganisms
10.2.2 Bacteria Capable of Aerobic Selective DBT-BDS
10.2.3 Microorganisms with Selective BDS of Benzothiophene and Dibenzothiophene
10.2.4 Microorganisms with Methoxylation Pathway
10.2.5 Microorganisms with High Tolerance for Oil/Water Phase Ratio
10.2.6 Thermotolerant Microorganisms with Selective BDS Capability
10.2.7 BDS Using Yeast and Fungi
10.3 Genetics and its Role in Improvement of BDS Process
10.4 Overcoming the Repression Effects of Byproducts
10.5 Enzymatic Oxidation of Organosulfur Compounds
10.6 Enhancement of Biodesulfurization via Immobilization
10.6.1 Types of Immobilization
10.6.1.2 Covalent Binding
10.7 Application of Nano-Technology in BDS Process
10.8 Role of Analytical Techniques in BDS
10.8.1 Gas Chromatography
10.8.1.1 Determination of Sulfur Compounds by GC
10.8.1.2 Assessment of Biodegradation
10.8.2 Presumptive Screening for Desulfurization and Identification of BDS Pathway
10.8.3 More Advanced Screening for Desulfurization and Identification of BDS Pathway
10.8.3.1 High Performance Liquid Chromatography
10.8.3.2 X-ray Sulfur Meter and other Techniques for Determining Total Sulfur Content
11 Biodesulfurization of Real Oil Feed
List of Abbreviations and Nomenclature
11.2 Biodesulfurization of Crude Oil
11.3 Biodesulfurization of Different Oil Distillates
11.4 BDS of Crude Oil and its Distillates by Thermophilic Microorganisms
11.5 Application of Yeast and Fungi in BDS of Real Oil Feed
11.6 Biocatalytic Oxidation
11.7 Anaerobic BDS of Real Oil Feed
11.8 Deep Desulfurization of Fuel Streams by Integrating Microbial with Non-Microbial Methods
11.8.1 BDS as a Complement to HDS
11.8.2 BDS as a Complementary to ADS
11.8.3 Coupling Non-Hydrodesulfurization with BDS
11.8.4 Three Step BDS-ODS-RADS
11.9 BDS of other Petroleum Products
12 Challenges and Opportunities
List of Abbreviations and Nomenclature
12.2 New Strains with Broad Versatility
12.3 New Strains with Higher Hydrocarbon Tolerance
12.4 Overcoming the Feedback Inhibition of the End-Products
12.5 Biodesulfurization under Thermophilic Conditions
12.6 Anaerobic Biodesulfurization
12.7 Biocatalytic Oxidation
12.8 Perspectives for Enhancing the Rate of BDS
12.8.1 Application of Genetics in BDS
12.8.2 Implementation of Resting Cells
12.8.3 Microbial Consortium and BDS
12.8.4 Surfactants and BDS
12.8.5 Application of Nanotechnology in the BDS Process
12.9 Production of Valuable Products
12.10 Storage of Fuel and Sulfur
12.11 Process Engineering Research
12.12 BDS Process of Real Oil Feed
12.13 BDS as a Complementary Technology
12.14 Future Perspectives
12.15 Techno-Economic Studies
12.16 Economic Feasibility
12.17 Fields of Developments
Biodsulfurization in Petroleum Refining
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