Front Cover

Interpretation of Micromorphological Features of Soils and Regoliths

Interpretation of Micromorphological Features of Soils and Regoliths

Copyright

Contents

List of Contributors

Preface to the First Edition

References

Preface to the Second Edition

List of Abbreviations

1 - Micromorphology as a Tool in Soil and Regolith Studies

1. Introduction

2. Soil and Regolith Genesis

3. Soil and Regolith Classification

4. Palaeopedology, Quaternary Geology and Archaeology

5. Soil Management and Other Applications

6. Correlations Between Micromorphology and Physical Data

7. Monitoring Experimental Work and Analyses

8. Evolutions in Analytical Methods

9. Conclusions

References

2 - Colluvial and Mass Wasting Deposits

1. Introduction

2. General Features of Translocated Material

3. Colluvial Deposits

3.1 Laminated Colluvium

3.2 Non-laminated Colluvium

3.3 Post-depositional Alterations

4. Mass Wasting Deposits

4.1 Solifluction Deposits

4.2 Landslides

4.3 Debris-Flow Deposits

4.4 Grain-Flow Deposits

5. Conclusions

Acknowledgements

References

3 - Saprolites

1. Introduction

2. The Saprolite Profile

3. General Micromorphological Features

4. Saprolites on Specific Lithological Rock Types

4.1 Igneous Rocks

4.1.1 Granite

4.1.2 Diorite

4.1.3 Gabbro

4.1.4 Andesitic Rocks

4.1.5 Basalt

4.2 Metamorphic Rocks

4.2.1 Gneiss

4.2.2 Schists

4.2.3 Amphibolites

4.2.4 Serpentinite

4.2.5 Phyllites and Slates

4.3 Sedimentary Rocks

4.3.1 Siliciclastic Rocks

4.3.2 Calcareous Rocks

5. Conclusions

References

4 - Pedoplasmation: Formation of Soil Material

1. Introduction

2. General Features

3. Disappearance of the Original Rock Fabric

4. Development of Microstructure and Porosity

5. Other Changes

5.1 Changes in Grain-Size Distribution

5.2 Colour Homogenisation and Limpidity Changes

5.3 Changes of the b-Fabric

6. Pedoplasmation on Carbonate Rocks

7. Conclusions

References

5 - Groundmass Composition and Fabric

1. Introduction

2. Coarse Fraction

2.1 Mineral Grains

2.1.1 Mineralogical Composition and Internal Fabric

2.1.2 Alteration

2.2 Rock Fragments

2.2.1 Identification and Occurrence

2.2.2 Alteration

2.3 Other Components

3. Micromass

3.1 Composition

3.2 Fabric

3.2.1 Undifferentiated b-Fabrics

3.2.2 Crystallitic b-Fabrics

3.2.3 Speckled, Striated and Strial b-Fabrics

3.2.3.1 SPECKLED B-FABRICS

3.2.3.2 STRIATED B-FABRICS

3.2.3.3 COMPARATIVE B-FABRIC STUDIES

4. Orientation and Distribution Patterns in the Groundmass

4.1 Basic Orientation and Distribution

4.2 Related Distribution Between Coarse and Fine Particles

5. Quantitative Analysis of the Groundmass

5.1 Coarse Fraction

5.2 b-Fabric

6. Discussion and Conclusions

Annex: Identification of Minerals

Augite ((Ca,Mg,Fe)2Si2O6)

Biotite

Calcite (Ca(CO3))

Chlorite

Enstatite-Ferrosilite

Epidote-Zoisite

Garnet

Glauconite ((K,Na)(Fe3+,Al,Mg)2(Si,Al)4O10(OH)2)

Hornblende

Ilmenite (Fe2+Ti4+O3)

Magnetite (Fe2+Fe23+O4)

Microcline (K(AlSi3O8))

Muscovite (KAl2(Si3Al)O10(OH)2)

Olivine

Orthoclase (K(AlSi3O8))

Plagioclase

Quartz (SiO2)

Sanidine (K(AlSi3O8))

Serpentine

Tourmaline

Tremolite-Actinolite

Zircon (Zr(SiO4))

References

6 - Pedogenic Siliceous Features

1. Introduction

2. Forms of Silica

2.1 Quartz and Chalcedony

2.2 Cristobalite and Tridymite

2.3 Opal

3. Pedogenic Silica and Types of Duricrust

3.1 Silcretes

3.1.1 Pedogenic Silcretes

3.1.2 Groundwater and Palustrine Silcretes

3.2 Duripans

3.3 Fragipans

4. Conclusions

References

7 - Biogenic Siliceous Features

1. Introduction

2. Phytoliths

2.1 Nature and Origin

2.2 Occurrence in Soils

2.3 Distribution Patterns

2.4 State of Preservation

2.5 Inventorying

3. Diatoms

4. Sponge Spicules

5. Testate Amoebae

6. Radiolaria

7. Conclusions

References

8 - Authigenic Silicate Minerals – Sepiolite-Palygorskite, Zeolites and Sodium Silicates

1. Introduction

2. Sepiolite and Palygorskite

2.1 Thin Section Studies

2.2 Transmission Electron Microscopy

2.3 Scanning Electron Microscopy

3. Zeolites

3.1 Thin Section Studies

3.2 Transmission Electron Microscopy

3.3 Scanning Electron Microscopy

4. Sodium Silicates

5. Conclusions

References

9 - Calcium Carbonate Features

1. Introduction

1.1 Carbonate Mineralogy

1.2 Microscopic Techniques

1.3 Terminology

2. Groundmass

2.1 Coarse Fraction

2.2 Micromass

3. Pedofeatures

3.1 Coatings

3.1.1 General Aspects

3.1.2 Pendants

3.1.3 Laminar and Lamellar Crusts

3.2 Hypo- and Quasicoatings

3.3 Infillings

3.3.1 General Aspects

3.3.2 Needle-Fibre Calcite

3.3.3 Coarse-Grained Cement

3.4 Nodules

3.4.1 General Aspects

3.4.2 Pisoliths (Ooids)

3.5 Root-Related Features

3.5.1 Calcified Root Hairs

3.5.2 Rhizoliths

3.5.3 Microcodium

3.6 Calcified Filaments

3.7 Biogenic Crystal Intergrowths

3.7.1 Earthworm Granules

3.7.2 Fecal Spherulites

3.7.3 Remains of Mollusca

4. Recrystallisation and Dissolution

4.1 Recrystallisation

4.2 Dissolution

5. Associated features

5.1 Dissolution of Silicate Minerals

5.2 Calcium Oxalate Occurrences

5.2.1 Lichens and Fungi

5.2.2 Calcium Oxalate Phytoliths

6. Formations with Combinations of Calcareous Features

6.1 Palustrine Carbonates

6.2 Calcrete Profiles

7. Conclusions

References

10 -Gypsic Features

1. Introduction

2. Crystal Morphology

2.1 Occurrences in Nature

2.2 Experimental Studies

3. Groundmass

3.1 Powdery Gypsic Materials

3.2 Microcrystalline Gypsic Materials

3.3 Rupture-Resistant Gypsic Materials

3.4 Aeolian Gypsic Materials

4. Pedofeatures

4.1 Infillings and Coatings

4.2 Nodules

4.3 Crystals and Crystal Intergrowths

5. Other Features Common in Soils With Gypsum

5.1 Dissolution Features

5.2 Calcite and Other Pseudomorphs

6. Discussion and Conclusions

References

11 - Salt Minerals in Saline Soils and Salt Crusts

1. Introduction

2. Halite

3. Thénardite and Mirabilite

4. Blödite

5. Other Highly Soluble Salt Minerals

5.1 Chlorides

5.2 Sulphates

5.2.1 Aphthitalite

5.2.2 Burkeite

5.2.3 Eugsterite

5.2.4 Glauberite

5.2.5 Magnesium Sulphates

5.2.6 Kogarkoite

5.2.7 Konyaite

5.2.8 Syngenite

5.3 Sodium Carbonates

5.4 Nitrates

6. Bassanite and Anhydrite

7. Poorly Soluble sulphate Minerals

7.1 Celestine

7.2 Kalistrontite

7.3 Baryte

8. Mineral Assemblages

9. Conclusions

References

12 - Phosphatic Features

1. Introduction

2. Phosphate Occurrences as Groundmass Components

2.1 Coarse Fraction

2.2 Micromass

2.3 Guano Deposits

3. Phosphate Occurrences as Pedofeatures

4. Conclusions

References

13 - Sulphidic and Sulphuric Materials

1. Introduction

2. Sulphidic Materials

2.1 Pyrite

2.1.1 Pyrite Framboids

2.1.2 Other Aspects of Pyrite Occurrences

2.2 Sulphides Other Than Pyrite

2.3 General Fabric of Sulphidic Layers

3. Sulphuric Materials

3.1 Jarosite

3.2 Iron Oxides

3.3 Gypsum

3.4 Silica

3.5 Other Minerals

4. Sulphide Oxidation Products in Contexts Other Than Acid Sulphate Soils

4.1 Jarosite

4.2 Gypsum

4.3 Other Sulphate Minerals

5. Conclusions

References

14 - Textural Pedofeatures and Related Horizons

1. Introduction

2. Clay Coatings

2.1 General Characteristics

2.2 Confusion With Micromorphologically Similar Features

2.3 Formation

2.3.1 General Aspects

2.3.2 Specific Types of Clay Coatings

2.4 Destruction and Alteration

2.4.1 Mechanical Processes

2.4.2 Alteration and Secondary Illuviation

2.5 Related Features

3. Textural Pedofeatures Other Than Clay Coatings

3.1 Coarse-Grained Coatings

3.2 Layered Coatings

3.3 Infillings

3.4 Silt Cappings

4. Horizons Related to Occurrences of Textural Pedofeatures

4.1 General Aspects

4.2 Argic Horizons

4.2.1 Sandy Argic Horizons

4.2.2 Loamy Argic Horizons

4.2.3 Clayey Argic Horizons

4.3 Agric Horizons

4.4 Natric Horizons

4.5 Nitic Horizons

4.6 Beta-Horizons

4.7 Argic Horizons in Palaeosoils

4.8 Eluvial Horizons

5. Quantification of Clay Illuviation

6. Conclusions

Acknowledgements

References

15 - Redoximorphic Features

1. Introduction

2. General Genetic Aspects

3. Nature and Identification

3.1 Intrusive Redox Pedofeatures

3.2 Impregnative Redox Pedofeatures

3.3 Depletion Redox Pedofeatures

3.4 Quantification

4. Significance

4.1 Duration of Water Saturation

4.2 Special Cases

4.2.1 Stratified Soils

4.2.2 Paddy Soils

4.2.3 Bog Iron

4.2.4 Dark Parent Material

4.3 Relict Versus Contemporary Features

5. Conclusions

References

16 - Features Related to Faunal Activity

1. Introduction

1.1 Soil Fauna and Micromorphology

1.2 Diversity of the Impact of Soil Fauna on Soils

2. Faunal Voids

2.1 Channels

2.2 Chambers

2.3 Modified Voids

3. Pedofeatures

3.1 Excrements

3.2 Coatings

3.3 Infillings

3.4 Other Pedofeatures

4. Features Related to Faunal Impact on Profile Development

5. Conclusions

Acknowledgement

References

17 - Soil Organic Matter

1. Introduction

2. Organic Materials

2.1 Fresh Materials

2.2 Partially and Fully Decomposed Materials or Humus

2.3 Charcoal and Related Materials

3. Soil Organic Matter Horizons and Profiles

4. Forest Soils

4.1 Moder

4.2 Mor

4.3 Mull

4.4 Anmoor

5. Wetland Soils or Hydric Histosols

5.1 Fibric Horizons

5.2 Hemic Horizons

5.3 Sapric Horizons

5.4 Peat Ripening

5.5 Dy, Gyttja and Sapropel

5.6 Anthropogenic Histosols

6. Organic Pedofeatures in Mineral Horizons

7. Organic Sedimentary Features

8. Applications and Conclusions

Acknowledgements

References

18 - Organo-mineral Surface Horizons

1. Introduction

2. Organo-mineral Surface Horizons of Soils of Temperate Climates

2.1 General Features

2.2 Mollic and Chernic Horizons

2.2.1 Orthotype

2.2.2 Variants

2.3 Umbric Horizon

3. Organo-mineral Surface Horizons of Desert Soils

3.1 Intervals With Takyric Properties

3.1.1 Orthotype

3.1.2 Variants

3.2 Intervals With Yermic Properties

4. Conclusions

References

19 - Physical and Biological Surface Crusts and Seals

1. Introduction

2. Physical Soil Crusts

2.1 Structural Crusts

2.1.1 Disruptional Crusts

2.1.1.1 DISRUPTIONAL MICROLAYER

2.1.1.2 SKIN SEAL

2.1.1.3 WASHED-OUT MICROLAYER

2.1.1.4 WASHED-IN MICROLAYER

2.1.2 Coalescing Crusts

2.1.3 Erosional Crusts

2.1.4 Sieving Crusts

2.2 Vesicular Surface Horizons

2.3 Sedimentary Crusts

3. Biological Soil Crusts

3.1 Macromorphological Features

3.2 Micromorphological Features

3.2.1 Stabilisation and Authigenic Mineral Precipitation Features

3.2.2 Dust Capture and Shrink-Swell Features

3.2.3 Destabilization and Mass-Wasting Features

3.2.4 Voids

3.3 Implications of Biological Soil Crusts for Moisture Conditions

4. Conclusions

Acknowledgements

References

20 - Frost Action

1. Introduction

2. Microstructure

2.1 Platy, Angular Blocky and Lenticular Microstructure

2.2 Granular Microstructure

2.3 Microstructure Stability

3. Groundmass

3.1 Micromass

3.2 Coarse Material

4. Pedofeatures

5. Implications for Pedostratigraphy

6. Summary and Conclusions

References

21 - Vertic Features

1. Introduction

2. Microstructure

3. Groundmass

3.1 Coarse Fraction

3.2 Micromass

3.2.1 Colour

3.2.2 b-Fabric

3.3 Pedofeatures

3.3.1 Fe and Mn Oxide Pedofeatures

3.3.2 Carbonate Pedofeatures

3.3.3 Gypsum Pedofeatures

3.3.4 Textural Pedofeatures

3.3.5 Excrements

4. Degradation of Vertic Features in Cultivated Soils

5. Vertic Features in Palaeosoils

6. Conclusions

References

22 - Spodic Materials

1. Introduction

2. Spodic Horizons and Ortstein

2.1 Microstructure and c/f-Related Distribution Patterns

2.2 Coarse Material

2.3 Fine Organic Material

2.3.1 Polymorphic Material

2.3.2 Monomorphic Material

2.3.3 Occurrence

2.4 Nanocrystalline Aluminosilicates

3. Related Horizons

3.1 Surface Horizons

3.2 Eluvial Horizons and Albic Materials

3.3 Placic Horizons

3.4 Other Horizons

4. Conclusions

References

23 - Oxic and Related Materials

1. Introduction

2. Microstructure

2.1 General Features

2.2 Origin of Granular Aggregates

2.3 Degree of Development and Degradation of the Granular Microstructure

3. Groundmass

3.1 c/f-Related Distribution Patterns

3.2 Coarse Mineral Material

3.2.1 General Features

3.2.2 Weathering of Quartz

3.3 Fine Mineral Material

3.4 Organic Material

4. Pedofeatures

4.1 Channel Infillings and Coatings

4.2 Iron Oxide Pedofeatures

4.3 Gibbsite Coatings and Nodules

4.4 Clay Coatings and Infillings

4.5 Siliceous Pedofeatures

5. Conclusions

References

24 - Lateritic and Bauxitic Materials

1. Introduction

1.1 Historical Background

1.2 Definition of Laterite

1.3 The Standard Laterite Profile

2. Ferritic Laterites

2.1 Soft Laterite or Mottled Clay Zone

2.1.1 General Characteristics

2.1.2 Hematite Nodules and Coatings

2.1.3 Other Coatings, Infillings, Nodules

2.2 Hard Laterite

2.2.1 General Characteristics

2.2.2 Nodules

2.2.3 Kaolinite-Goethite Coatings

2.2.4 Goethite Coatings and Infillings

2.2.5 Manganese Features

2.2.6 Other Features

2.3 Gravel-Rich Layer

3. Bauxites and Bauxitic Laterites

4. Conclusions

References

25 - Regoliths and Soils on Volcanic Ash

1. Introduction

2. Microstructure

3. Groundmass

3.1 Coarse Material

3.1.1 Identification of Components

3.1.2 Alteration Before Pedogenesis

3.1.3 Sedimentary Features

3.1.4 Evolution in Soils

3.2 Micromass

4. Organic Material

5. Pedofeatures

5.1 Illuvial Clay Coatings

5.2 Authigenic Clay Coatings

5.3 Other Pedofeatures

6. Conclusions

Acknowledgements

References

26 - Anthropogenic Features

1. Introduction

2. Microstructure

2.1 Agricultural Soils

2.1.1 Tillage

2.1.2 Burning of Soils and Above-ground Vegetation

2.1.3 Irrigation

2.1.4 Other Practices

2.2 Technosols and Urban Soils

3. Groundmass

3.1 Coarse Mineral Components

3.1.1 Agricultural Soils

3.1.2 Technosols

3.2 Micromass

4. Organic Components

5. Pedofeatures

5.1 Large-Scale Field Practices

5.1.1 Tillage

5.1.2 Fertilisation

5.1.3 Irrigation and Wet Cultivation

5.2 Technosols and Urban Soil Contexts

6. Conclusions

References

27 - Archaeological Materials

1. Introduction

2. Natural Soils and Sediments Employed in Construction

2.1 Turf

2.2 Ground-Raising Constructional Materials

2.3 Floors, Surfaces and Walls

2.4 Organic Floor Coverings

3. Waste Materials

3.1 Inorganic Waste Materials

3.2 Organic Waste Materials

3.2.1 Herbivore Dung

3.2.2 Pig Dung

3.2.3 Dog Coprolites

3.2.4 Human Coprolites

4. Manufactured Materials

4.1 Stone Tools

4.2 Plasters and Mortars

4.3 Metal Working

5. Conclusions

Acknowledgements

References

28 - Palaeosoils and Relict Soils: A Conceptual Approach

1. Introduction

2. Methodology

2.1 Recognition of Palaeosoils and Relict Soils

2.2 Reconstruction of History

2.2.1 Discontinuous Soil Evolution

2.2.2 Soil Memory

2.2.3 Systems Analysis of Polygenetic Palaeosoils and Soils

3. Common Types of Hierarchies

3.1 Textural Features

3.2 Ferruginous Features

3.3 Calcitic Facies

4. Reworked Materials

4.1 In Situ Soil Reworking and Mass Transportation

4.2 Transport in Suspension

4.3 Aeolian Processes

5. Palaeoenvironmental Significance

6. Transitions in Palaeosoil Sequences and Their Significance

7. Reconstruction of the History of Relict Soils

8. Dating Palaeosoil Development

9. Diagenesis

10. Conclusions

References

29 - Palaeosoils and Relict Soils: A Systematic Review

1. Introduction

2. Buried Soils

2.1 Buried Soils in Loess

2.2 Buried Soils in Sandy Aeolian Sediments

2.3 Buried Soils in Glacial Sediments

2.4 Buried Soils in Alluvial Sediments

2.5 Buried Soils in Colluvial Deposits

2.6 Pre-Cainozoic Buried Soils

3. Relict Soils

4. Polygenetic Soils

4.1 Polygenetic Soil on Late Pleistocene Loess

4.2 Vetusols

4.3 Other Occurrences

5. Reworked Soil Material

6. Weathering Surfaces and Rock Coatings

7. Palaeosoil Development Indices

8. Conclusions

References

30 - Micromorphological Features and Their Relation to Processes and Classification: General Guidelines and Overview

1. Introduction

1.1 Criteria for In Situ Formation and Relative Chronology

1.2 Relicts of the Parent Material

1.2.1 Nature of the Parent Material

1.2.2 Degree of Weathering

2. Guide to Features

2.1 Microstructure and c/f-Related Distribution Patterns

2.1.1 Basic Microstructures

2.1.2 Granular Microstructure

2.1.3 Crumb Microstructure

2.1.4 Blocky Microstructure

2.1.5 Platy Microstructure

2.1.6 Lenticular Microstructure

2.1.7 Spongy Microstructure

2.1.8 Vesicular Microstructure

2.1.9 Vughy Microstructure

2.1.10 Channel Microstructure

2.1.11 Massive Microstructure

2.2 Groundmass

2.2.1 Heterogeneity

2.2.2 Special Fabric Types

2.2.3 Coarse Material

2.2.4 Micromass

2.3 Organic Material

2.3.1 Coarse to Fine Organic Material

2.3.2 Organo-mineral Material

2.4 Pedofeatures

2.4.1 Textural Coatings and Infillings

2.4.2 Iron and Manganese Oxides

2.4.3 Calcium Carbonates

2.4.4 Gypsum

2.4.5 Pedogenic Silica and Silicates

2.4.6 Other Minerals

References

Author Index

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B

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D

E

F

G

H

I

J

K

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M

N

O

P

Q

R

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W

X

Y

Z

Subject Index

A

B

C

D

E

F

G

H

I

J

K

L

M

N

O

P

Q

R

S

T

U

V

W

X

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