Front Cover

The Nutritional Biochemistry of Chromium(III)

Copyright

Contents

Contributors

Preface to revised edition

Chapter 1: Introduction: A history of chromium studies (1955–2007)

Introduction

Chromium(III)

The Glucose Tolerance Factor (GTF) Story

The identification of GTF

Brewer’s Yeast “GTF”

Biological Activity Assays

Porcine Kidney Powder “GTF”

Other Questions Regarding “GTF”

Conclusions

The Race to Synthesize a Model of “GTF”

The Chromium Picolinate, [Cr(pic)3], Story

Nutritional Supplement?

Toxic Effects?

Inorganic Chemistry

Evidence for Chromium Being an Essential Element

Rat Studies

Oral Healthy Human Studies

Total Parenteral Nutrition and Intravenous Human Studies

Absorption Studies

Other Animals

Diabetes and Chromium/Chromium Transport

Adult-onset diabetes and chromium

Other Conditions Resulting in Increased Urinary Cr loss

Chromium transport

Other Potential Chromium-containing Biomolecules

Toxicity

Conclusion

Acknowledgments

References

Part: I: Chromium as a Nutrient and Nutritional Supplement

Chapter 2: Effects of chromium(III) as a nutritional supplement

Introduction

Overview of Chromium Nutrition and Metabolism

Effects of Chromium Supplementation on Body Composition of Adults

Untrained Adults

Body Composition and Performance of Athletes

Body Mass Loss and Maintenance

Older Adults

Chromium(III) Supplementation and Body Composition in Clinical Conditions With Insulin Resistance

Mechanisms of Chromium(III) on Protein and Fat Metabolism

Summary and interpretation of findings of the effects of cr(III) Supplementation for Body Mass Reduction, Body Composition ...

Chromium(III) Intake

Compliance

Absorption and Excretion of Cr(III)

Body Composition and Performance

Conclusions

References

Chapter 3: Use of chromium as an animal feed supplement

Introduction

Factors Related to Cr Status of Farm Livestock

Swine

Introduction

Metabolic Effects

Chromium for Weanling Pigs

Chromium for Growing Pigs

Chromium for Reproducing Pigs

Summary for Swine

Cattle

Introduction

Metabolic Effects

Chromium for Young Calves

Chromium for Dairy Cows

Summary for Cattle

Poultry

Introduction

Metabolic Effects

Chromium for Broilers (Meat Birds)

Chromium for Laying Hens

Summary

Sheep and Goats

Introduction

Metabolic Effects

Chromium for Growing Lambs

Summary

Equine

Introduction

Metabolic Effects

Chromium for Horses

Summary

Qualitative Responses

Quantitative Responses

General Conclusion

Acknowledgments

References

Part: II: Biochemical Role(s) for Chromium(III)

Chapter 4: The absorption and transport of chromium in the body

Absorption

Passive Absorption

Fate of Dietary Chromium after Absorption

Transferrin and Chromium Transport From the Bloodstream to the Tissues

Transferrin

Physical Characterization of Chromium Transferrins

Rate of Cr Binding

Chromium-Binding Constants

Metal-Binding Competition Studies

In Vivo Studies

Does Transferrin Have a Role in Cr Detoxification?

Rate of Cr Release

LOW-Molecular-Weight Chromium-Binding Substance

Role in Pharmacological Action of Chromium?

Transferrin and LMWCR

Chromium Elimination

Conclusion

References

Further Reading

Chapter 5: Metabolic effects of chromium—Potential molecular mechanisms

Introduction

Chromium and Diabetes

Low-Molecular Weight Organic Chromium Complexes

Chromium and Insulin Signaling

Chromium and Protein Tyrosine Phosphatase

Chromium and AMP-Activated Protein Kinase Signaling

Chromium and Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress

Chromium and Gene Regulation

Conclusion

References

Part: III: Chromium(III) as Therapeutic Agent

Chapter 6: Effects of chromium(III) supplementation on rodent models of insulin resistance and diabetes

Rodent Models of Insulin Resistance and Diabetes

Animal Models of Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus

Animal Models of Type 2 Diabetes

Chromium(III) Supplementation on Rodent Models of Insulin Resistance and Diabetes

Effects of Diabetes on Chromium Status

Effects of Chromium(III) on Diabetes

Chromium(III) Picolinate

Chromium(III) Propionate Complex (Cr3)

Chromium(III) Niacinate

Chromium(III) Histidinate

Chromium(III) Malate

Cr-Enriched Yeast

Cr(III) Inorganic Compounds

Other Chromium(III) Compounds and Comparative Studies

Conclusion

References

Chapter 7: Chromium supplements in health and disease

Introduction

Effect of Chromium Supplementation in Specific Populations

Individuals with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus

Clinical Guidelines

Individuals With Metabolic Syndrome

Individuals With Polycystic Ovary Syndrome

Individuals with Neurological or Cognitive Defects/Depression

Insulin Resistance

Binge Eating Disorder and Glycemic Control

Depression

Cognitive Decline

Chromium Status and Biomarkers of Disease Risk

Serum Lipids and Cardiovascular Disease Risk

Effect of Chromium on Biomarkers of Oxidative Stress and Inflammation

Summary

Funding and Sponsorship

Disclosures

References

Chapter 8: Benefits of chromium(III) complexes in animal and human health

Introduction

Chromium(III) Deficiency and Diseases

Dietary Sources of Beneficial Chromium(III)

Trivalent Chromium, Absorption and Bioavailability

Chromium(III) and Glucose Tolerance Factor (GTF)

Chromium(III), Diabetes and Insulin Response

Chromium(III) Supplementation in Lowering Blood Pressure, Hypertension, and Cholesterol

Trivalent Chromium Supplementation, Syndrome X, AND Weight Loss

Dietary Chromium(III) and Free Radical Scavenging Ability

Safety of Chromium(III) Complexes

Conclusion

References

Part: IV: Toxicological Effects of Chromium(III)

Chapter 9: Redox chemistry and biological activities of chromium(III) complexes

Introduction

Formation and Roles of Strong Oxidants in Biological Systems

Oxidation of Cr(III) Complexes under Physiological Conditions

Biological Consequences of Cr(III) Oxidation

Is Cr(III) an Antioxidant or a Pro-oxidant?

Damage to DNA and Proteins

Interference with Cell Signaling

Redox Activity of Chromium in Mammalian Cells

Oxidative Hypothesis of Cr(III) Biological Activity

Acknowledgment

References

Chapter 10: Oxidative stress of Cr(III) and carcinogenesis

Introduction

Mechanisms of Reactive Oxygen Species

Cr(VI) to Cr(III)

Cr(III) Reduction

Cr(III) Toxicity and Carcinogenesis

Chromium(III) Genotoxicity

Cr(III) Toxicity of Dietary Supplements

Kemtrace/Cr3

Chromium(III) nicotinate

Chromium(III) picolinate

Dietary supplement summary

Cr(III) in Drinking Water

Combined Exposure Studies

Chromium(III) Nanoparticles

Role of Cr(III) in Cr(VI) Carcinogenesis

Summary

Acknowledgments

References

Further Reading

Chapter 11: Overview of chromium(III) toxicology

Introduction

Beneficial effects of Cr(III) and questions concerned

Toxic and carcinogenic effects of Cr(III)

Genotoxic and mutagenic effects of Cr(III)

Developmental and reproductive toxicity of Cr(III)

Epigenetic effects of Cr(III)

Conclusions

References

Chapter 12: Summary: The metabolism, nutritional essentiality, and clinical importance of chromium—Clarity emerging after ...

Introduction

Chromium(III) Essentiality

Chromium as a Beneficial Bioactive Element in Animals and Humans

Chromium Mechanism of Action

Chromium Metabolism

Chromium Toxicity

Conclusion

References

Index

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