Front Cover

Nanomaterials in Rocket Propulsion Systems

Nanomaterials in Rocket Propulsion Systems

Copyright

Dedication

Contents

Contributors

Preface

1 - Nanomaterials in Rocket Fuels

1 - The Prospects of Using Nanoenergetic Materials in Solid Rocket Propulsion

1. Introduction

2. Nanometals in Solid Propellants

3. Nano-Oxidizers

4. Mechanisms of Nanothermite Reaction

5. Nano-Explosives

6. Experimental Methods for Characterization of Nanoenergetic Systems

7. Concluding Remarks

Acknowledgments

References

2 - Review on Nanoexplosive Materials

1. Introduction

2. Why Nanoexplosives

3. Preparation and Characterization

3.1 Methods for the Preparation of Nanoexplosives

3.2 Characterizations and Evaluation

4. Properties

4.1 Sensitivities

4.1.1 Impact Sensitivity

4.1.2 Friction Sensitivity

4.1.3 Shock Sensitivity

4.1.4 Electrostatic Discharge/Spark Sensitivity

4.2 Detonation

4.3 Thermal Stability

4.3.1 Melting Point

4.3.2 Transition Temperature

4.3.3 Decomposition Temperature

5. Challenges Involved

6. Conclusion and Outlook

Acknowledgments

References

3 - Insensitive Energetic Materials Containing Two-Dimensional Nanostructures as Building Blocks

1. Introduction

2. Graphene-Based Energetic Nanomaterials

2.1 Hybrid/Composite Energetic Nanomaterials Based on Graphene

2.2 Energetic Metastable Intermolecular Nanocomposites Containing Graphene

2.3 Functionalized GO as 2D Energetic Materials

3. Carbon-Nitrogen-Based 2D Energetic Structures

3.1 Insensitive 2D Carbon Nitride-Related Derivatives

3.2 Insensitive Energetic Nitrogen-Rich Coordination Polymers

4. Summary

Acknowledgments

References

4 - Preparation, Characterization, and Application of Superthermites in Solid Propellant

1. Introduction

2. Experiment Section

2.1 Characterization

2.2 Preparation and Characterization of Al/PbO by the Ultrasonic Sol-Dipping Method

2.2.1 Preparation

2.2.1.1 Preparation of Al/PbO Using NaOH

2.2.1.2 Preparation of Al/PbO Using KOH

2.2.2 Characterizations

2.3 Preparation and Characterization of Al/PbO Using an Ultrasonic Dispersion Method

2.3.1 Preparation

2.3.2 Characterization

2.4 Preparation and Characterization of Al/CuO by the Ultrasonic Dispersion Method

2.4.1 Preparation

2.4.2 Characterization

2.5 Preparation and Characterization of Al/Bi2O3 by the Ultrasonic Dispersion Method

2.5.1 Preparation

2.5.2 Characterization

2.6 Preparation and Characterization of Al/CuO by Sol–Gel Methods

2.6.1 Preparation

2.6.2 Characterization

2.7 Characterization of Al/Bi2O3 by Hydrothermal Methods

3. The Thermal Behaviors and Decomposition Mechanisms of the Precursors for Al/CuO Superthermite

3.1 Structural Evaluation

3.2 Thermal Behaviors and Decomposition Mechanisms

3.3 Nonisothermal Decomposition Reaction Kinetics

4. Compatibility of Superthermite With the Components of DB Propellants

4.1 Compatibility Obtained by Using the VST Method

4.1.1 Principle of the VST Method

4.1.2 Results and Discussion

4.2 Compatibility Obtained by Using the DSC Method

4.2.1 Principle of the DSC Method for Determining Compatibility

4.2.2 Results and Discussion

4.3 Comparison of the Compatibility Results Obtained Using Different Methods

5. The Effects of Superthermites on the Combustion Properties of DB Propellants

5.1 Experimental

5.1.1 Formulations and Preparation of Propellants

5.1.2 Characterization

5.2 Combustion Performance of DB Propellants Containing Superthermites

6. Conclusion

References

5 - Aluminum Powders for Energetics: Properties and Oxidation Behavior

1. Introduction

2. Al Nanopowder

3. Oxidation of Al Powders

3.1 Nonisothermal Oxidation

3.1.1 Nano-Versus Micron-Sized

3.1.2 Flake Versus Nano- and Micron-Sized

3.2 Isothermal Oxidation

4. Combustion of Al Powders in Air

5. Oxidation of Al Powders in Water

6. Al Powder Combustion in Propellants

7. Conclusion

Acknowledgments

References

2 - Nano-Engineered Propellants and Propulsion

6 - Nanoenergetic Ingredients to Augment Solid Rocket Propulsion

1. Background

2. Motivations and Objectives

3. Historical Excursus in Solid Rocket Propulsion

4. Introduction to Nanometals

4.1 Ultrafine Versus Nanosized Particles

4.2 Energy Excess

4.3 First-Generation Versus Advanced nEM

5. Studies on Nanoingredients for Solid Rocket Propulsion

6. Basic Flame Structure Modified by Aluminum Powder

6.1 Burning Surface of Metallized Formulations

6.2 μAl Powder: Agglomeration-Controlled Burning

6.3 nAl Powder: Aggregation-Controlled Burning

6.4 Comparing nAl to μAl Aluminum Powder

6.5 Properties Affecting nAl Burning

7. Augmented Steady Ballistic Properties

7.1 Steady Burning Rate of AP/HTPB/Al Composite Propellants

7.1.1 Partial or Full Replacement of μAl by nAl

7.1.2 Effect of Al Particle Size

7.1.3 Effect of Al Chemical Activation

7.1.4 Effect of Al Mechanical Activation

7.1.5 Effect of Al-Specific Surface

7.1.6 Effect of nAl Production Technique

7.1.7 Effect of nAl Manufacturer

7.1.8 Effect of nAl Surface Coating

7.1.9 Concluding Remarks

7.2 More Formulations About Steady Burning Rate

7.2.1 AP-Based Composite Propellants at ICP and ICKC

7.2.2 AP/HTPB-Based Composite Propellants: AP Grain Size Distribution

7.2.3 AP/HTPB-Based Composite Propellants: Effects of nMe and nMeO

7.2.4 AP-Based NEPE Propellants

7.2.5 DB and CMDB Propellants

7.2.6 Miscellaneous Formulations

7.2.7 RDX-Based CMDB Propellants

7.2.8 RDX-Based Layered Composite Formulations

7.2.9 Dual-Oxidizer AP+HMX Propellants

7.2.10 nAl/H2O Formulations

7.3 Advanced Formulations About Steady Burning Rate

7.3.1 RDX- and AP-Based Nanocomposite Propellants

7.3.2 HMX-Based Nanocomposite Propellants

7.3.3 Nanobimetal Loaded Formulations

7.3.4 Al/PTFE-Loaded Formulations

7.3.5 Graphene-Loaded Formulations

7.3.6 AP/HTPB-Based Composite Propellants: Effects of Encapsulated AP Catalyst

7.3.7 AP/HTPB-Based Composite Propellants: Effects of nFe2O3 and Al/Fe2O3 Nanocomposite

7.4 Pressure Exponent

7.5 Summary Remarks on Augmented Steady Ballistic Properties

8. Delivered Specific Impulse

9. Concluding Remarks

Acknowledgments

References

7 - Performance of Composite Solid Propellant Containing Nanosized Metal Particles

1. Introduction

2. Experimental

2.1 Materials and Specimen

2.2 Preparation of Propellants

2.3 Characterization Methods of Ingredients and Propellants

2.3.1 Brunauer–Emmett–Teller, SEM, and Particle Size Distribution Experiments

2.3.2 Rheological Experiment

2.3.3 Burning Rate Test Method

2.3.4 Hazardous Properties Test

2.3.5 Heat of Explosion Test

2.3.6 Density Test

2.3.7 Mechanical Properties

3. Results and Discussion

3.1 SEM, Grain Size Distribution, and Thermogravimetry/Differential Thermal Analysis

3.2 Rheological and Surface-Interfacial Properties of Different Nanosized Metal/Binder Slurries

3.2.1 Effect of nAl on the Rheological Properties of nAl/Binder Slurries

3.3 Effects of Different Nanosized Metal Particles on the Rheological Properties of HTPB Composite Propellant

3.3.1 The Composition of HTPB Composite Solid Propellants

3.3.2 Effect of Nanosized Metal Particles on the Rheological Properties of Composite Propellants

3.3.3 Energetic Properties (Density and Heat of Explosion)

3.3.4 Hazardous Properties

3.3.5 Effects of Different Nanosized Particles on the Combustion Performance of Composite Propellants

3.3.5.1 Burning Rate and Pressure Exponent

3.3.5.2 Combustion Flame Structures

3.4 Effects of Different nAl Particles on the Properties of Fuel-Rich Solid Propellant

3.4.1 The Composition of Fuel-Rich Solid Propellants

3.4.2 Effects of nAl Mass Fraction on the Rheological Property of Propellant Slurries

3.4.3 Energetic Properties (Density and Heat of Combustion)

3.4.4 Hazardous Properties

3.4.5 Effects of nAl Particles on the Combustion Properties of Fuel-Rich Propellants

3.4.5.1 Burning Rate and Pressure Exponent

3.4.5.2 Combustion Flame Structures

3.4.5.3 Combustion Flame Residues Analysis

3.5 Effects of nAl Powder on NEPE Solid Propellant Properties

3.5.1 The Composition of NEPE Solid Propellants

3.5.2 Effects of nAl on the Heat of Explosion of NEPE Solid Propellants

3.5.3 Effects of nAl on the Combustion Properties of NEPE Solid Propellants

3.5.3.1 Burning Rate and Pressure Exponent

3.5.3.2 Combustion Flame Structures

3.5.3.3 Combustion-Quenched Surface and Elemental Analysis

3.6 Hazardous Properties of nAl/RDX Mixtures

3.6.1 Preparation of Samples

3.6.2 Effect of nAl/RDX Mass Ratio on Thermal Stability of Mixtures

3.6.3 Effect of nAl/RDX Mass Ratio on the Combustion Flame and Impact Sensitivity

3.6.4 Effect of Different Preparation Methods on the Sensitivity of nAl/RDX Mixtures

3.6.5 Effect of Coating Materials on the Impact Sensitivity of nAl/RDX Mixtures

4. Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

8 - Effect of Ammonium Perchlorate Particle Size on F

1. Introduction

2. Theoretical Background

2.1 Propellants

2.2 Classification of Solid Rocket Propellants

2.2.1 Classes of Solid Propellants

2.3 Solid Propellant Characteristics

2.3.1 Burn Rate (r)

2.3.2 Pressure Index Value (“n” Value)

2.3.3 Specific Impulse (Isp)

2.4 Solid Rocket Motor

2.5 Composite Propellant

2.6 Ingredients of Composite Propellant

2.6.1 Oxidizer

2.6.2 Metallic Fuel

2.6.3 Binders

2.6.3.1 Average Molecular Weight (Mn)

2.6.3.2 Polydispersity

2.6.3.3 Functionality and Cross-linking

2.6.3.4 Types of Binder

2.6.3.5 Properties of Butadiene Binders

2.6.4 Burn Rate Modifiers

2.6.5 Process Aid/Plasticizers

2.6.6 Bonding Agents

2.6.7 Curing Agent and Curing Catalyst

2.7 Physical and Flow Properties of Ammonium Perchlorate

2.8 Ballistic Properties of Composite Propellant

2.8.1 Burning Rate

2.9 Mechanical Properties of Composite Propellant

2.9.1 Tensile Tests: Stress/Strain Behavior, Tensile Strength, Young's Modulus, and % Elongation

2.9.2 Significance of the Properties

3. Experimental Procedures

3.1 Selection of Ammonium Perchlorate Test Powder

3.2 Measurement of physical Properties of Ammonium Perchlorate Powder

3.2.1 Measurement of Particle Size of Ammonium Perchlorate Powder Through Sieve Analysis

3.2.2 Measurement of Particle Size of Ammonium Perchlorate Powder Through Laser Diffraction

3.2.3 Measurement of Density of Various Ammonium Perchlorate Particle Sizes

3.2.3.1 Bulk Density

3.2.3.2 Tapped Density

3.2.4 Measurement of Moisture of Various Ammonium Perchlorate Particle Sizes

3.3 Measurement of Flow Properties of Ammonium Perchlorate Powder

3.3.1 Measurement of Angle of Repose

3.3.2 Uniaxial Compression Test

3.3.3 Flowability Characterization

3.4 Effect of Flow Additives on Flow Properties of Ammonium Perchlorate

3.5 Effect of Flow Additives on Burn Rate and Mechanical Properties of Composite Propellant

3.5.1 Source and Material Characteristics

Oxidizer: AP

Metal powder: Al

Prepolymer: HTPB

Curator: Toluene diisocyanate

Plasticizer: Dioctyl adipate

3.5.2 Mixing, Casting, and Curing of Samples

3.5.3 Evaluation of Properties

3.6 Effect of Ammonium Perchlorate Particle Size on Burn Rate and Mechanical Properties of Composite Propellant

4. Results and Discussion

4.1 Ammonium Perchlorate Powder Physical Property Characterization

4.1.1 Particle Size and Particle Size Distribution

4.1.2 Measurement of Moisture Content

4.1.3 Measurement of Density

4.2 Ammonium Perchlorate Powder Flow Property Measurement

4.2.1 Angle of Repose Measurement

4.2.2 Flowability Determination Using Hausner Ratio and Carr Index

4.2.3 Uniaxial Compression Test and Flow Index Determination

4.3 Effect of Flow Additives on Flow Properties of Ammonium Perchlorate

4.4 Effect of Flow Additives on Burn Rate and Mechanical Properties of Composite Propellant

4.5 Effect of Ammonium Perchlorate Particle Size on Ballistic and Mechanical Properties

5. Conclusion

References

9 - New Developments in Composite Propellants Catalysis: From Nanoparticles to Metallo-Polyurethanes

1. Introduction

2. Nano-TMOs as BR Catalysts

2.1 Nano-Fe2O3

2.2 Nano-CuO

2.3 Nano-TiO2

3. Metallo-PUs as BR Catalysts

4. Conclusion

Acknowledgments

References

10 - Chemical Propulsion of Microthrusters

1. Introduction

2. Solid Propellants for Microhrusters

2.1 Energy Characteristics of Thermites

2.2 Synthesis of Nano-Al/CuO Thermite

2.3 Microthruster Charged by Al/CuO-Based Propellant

3. Conclusion

References

11 - Integrated Micropropulsion Systems With Nanoenergetic Propellants

1. Introduction

2. Solid Propellants

3. Nanoenergetic Materials

4. Nanoenergetic Gas Generator Formulations for Microthrusters

5. Design and 3D Printing of Microthrusters and Microthruster Arrays

6. Dispensing and Encapsulation of Nanoenergetic Materials

7. Microthruster Testing and Thrust Evaluation

8. Sensing and Communication Technologies in Aerial Vehicles With Microthrusters

9. Conclusions

References

3 - Nanomaterials for Rocket Motors Hardware

12 - Polymer Nanocomposite Ablative Technologies for Solid Rocket Motors

1. Introduction

2. Solid Rocket Motor Nozzle and Insulation Materials

2.1 Behavior of Ablative Materials

3. Advanced Polymer Nanocomposite Ablatives

3.1 Polymer Nanocomposites for SRM Nozzles

3.1.1 Phenolic Nanocomposite Studies by the University of Texas at Austin

3.1.2 Phenolic-Multiwalled Carbon nanotube Nanocomposite Studies by Texas State University at San Marcos

3.2 Polymer Nanocomposites for SRM Internal Insulation

3.2.1 Thermoplastic Polyurethane Nanocomposites Studies by the University of Texas at Austin

4. New Sensing Technology

4.1 In Situ Ablation Recession and Thermal Sensor

4.1.1 Production of Carbon/Carbon Sensor Plugs

4.1.2 Ablation Test Results of Carbon/Carbon Sensors

4.1.3 Ablation Test Results of Carbon/Phenolic Sensors

4.1.4 Other Ablation Sensor Results

4.1.5 Summary and Conclusions

4.2 Char Strength Sensor

4.2.1 Setup and Calibration of Compression Sensor

4.2.2 Analysis Method

4.2.3 Char Compressive Strength Results

4.2.4 Additional Considerations on the Interpretation of the Data

4.2.5 Concluding Remarks

5. Technologies Needed to Advance Polymer Nanocomposite Ablative Research

5.1 Thermophysical Properties Characterization

5.1.1 Thermal Conductivity

5.1.2 Thermal Expansion

5.1.3 Density and Composition

5.1.4 Microstructures

5.1.5 Elemental Composition

5.1.6 Char Yield

5.1.7 Specific Heat

5.1.8 Heat of Combustion

5.1.9 Optical Properties

5.1.10 Porosity

5.1.11 Permeability

5.2 Ablation Modeling

6. Overall Summary and Conclusion

Acknowledgments

References

13 - Nanotube/Nanowire-Toughened Carbon/Carbon Composites and Their Coatings

1. Introduction

1.1 Fabrication of CNT–Carbon Fiber Multiscaled Preforms

1.2 Mechanical Properties of CNT–C/C Composites

1.3 Oxidation and Ablation Behavior of CNT–C/C Composites

2. Nanoparticle-Toughened Coatings on C/C Composites

3. Carbon Nanotube-Toughened Coatings on C/C Composites

4. SiC Nanowire-Toughened Coatings on C/C Composites

5. SiC Nanowire-Toughened C/C–UHTC Composites

6. HfC Nanowire-Toughened Coatings on C/C Composites

7. Summary

References

14 - An Introduction to Ablative Materials and High-Temperature Testing Protocols

1. An Introduction to Thermal Protection System Materials

2. Polymeric Ablatives

2.1 An Introduction to Thermophysical Characterization

3. Advanced Testing Techniques for TPS Materials

3.1 The Oxy-Acetylene Torch

3.2 An Alternative to the OAT: The Simulated Solid Rocket Motor

3.3 A solid Rocket Motor-Based Test Bed

References

Author Index

A

B

D

F

G

H

K

L

M

N

P

Q

R

S

T

W

X

Y

Z

Subject Index

A

B

C

D

E

F

G

H

I

K

L

M

N

O

P

R

S

T

U

V

W

X

Y

Z

Back Cover