Chapter
1.3 Bioeconomy–Circular Economy
1.5 Bioenergy and Policy Context
2.1 Biomass as a Renewable Source of Energy
2.1.1 Nature of biomass and its terminology
2.1.2 Process of photosynthesis
2.2 Chemical Composition and Characterization of Biomass
2.2.1 Elemental composition
2.2.3 Water content and the heating value of biomass
2.2.4 Inorganic compounds and ash composition
2.3 Classification of Biomass Types
2.3.1 According to chemical composition
2.3.2 According to origin
2.3.3 According to biomass end use
2.4.1.1 Sugar-producing crops
2.4.1.2 Starch rich crops
2.4.1.4 Lignocellulosic crops
2.4.2.1 Forest and other wooded lands
2.4.2.2 Different types of wood fuels
2.4.2.3 Wood resources in forest and other wooded lands
2.4.2.4 Wood fuel production
2.4.2.5 Changes in wood fuel production
2.4.3 By-products, residues, and wastes
2.4.3.2 Agro-industrial residues
2.4.3.4 Municipal solid waste
2.4.4 Algae for bioenergy
2.4.4.1 Categories of algae
2.4.4.1.1 Prokaryotic algae
2.4.4.1.2 Eukaryotic algae
2.4.4.2 Microalgae cultures
2.4.4.2.1 History of algae utilization
2.4.4.2.2 Microalgae production systems
2.4.4.2.2.2 Suspended microalgae PBRs
2.4.4.2.2.3 Algae biofilm PBRs
2.4.4.3 Macroalgae and bioenergy
2.4.4.4 Algae biorefinery
3.2 First-Generation Technologies for Liquid Biofuels Production
3.2.1 Feedstocks: conventional sugar, starch, and oil-containing crops
3.2.1.1 Sugar-containing crops
3.2.1.2 Starch-containing crops
3.2.2 Conversion technologies
3.2.2.1 First-generation bioethanol
3.2.2.2 Biodiesel from VOs
3.3 Second-Generation Technologies for Liquid Biofuels Production
3.3.1 Advanced feedstocks
3.3.2 Advanced conversion technologies
3.3.2.1 Biological processes
3.3.2.2 Thermochemical processes
3.3.2.3 Combination of thermochemical and biochemical technologies
3.4 Prospective Technologies
3.5 Challenges, Opportunities, and Barriers
4. Solid Biomass to Heat and Power
4.2 Biomass for Solid Biofuels
4.2.4 Agro-industrial wastes
4.3 Solid Biomass Consumption
4.4 Solid Biomass Heat and Power Generation Technologies
4.4.4 Combined heat and power
4.5 Thermal Energy and/or Electricity Generation Costs With Biomass
5.2 Description of Biorefineries
5.2.1 Definition of biorefineries
5.2.3 Classification of biorefinery systems
5.3 Concepts of Biorefineries
5.3.2 Examples: energy-driven biorefineries
5.3.2.1 Three-platform (C5 and C6 sugar, electricity and heat, and lignin) biorefinery using wood chips for bioethanol, ele...
5.3.2.2 Four-platform (biogas, green juice, green fibers, and electricity and heat) biorefinery using grass silage and food...
5.3.2.3 Three-platform (pyrolysis oil, syngas, and electricity and heat) biorefinery using straw for FT-biofuels and methan...
5.3.3 Example: product-driven biorefinery
5.4 Integration in Existing Infrastructure
5.5 Biorefinery Complexity Index
5.6 Economic and Environmental Aspects of Biorefineries
5.6.2.1 Bioethanol from wood
5.6.2.2 Bioethanol from straw
5.6.3 Biorefinery Fact Sheets
5.6.4 Example: Biorefinery Fact sheet
5.6.4.1 Part A: Biorefinery plant
5.6.4.2 Part B: Value chain sustainability assessment
5.7.1 Outlook and future paths in biorefineries
5.7.2 Discussion and conclusions
6. Sustainability of Bioenergy
6.1.1 Sustainability: From Stockholm to Rio to New York—and Beyond
6.1.2 Sustainable Biomass: Principles, Criteria, and Indicators
6.1.3 Sustainability Challenges for Bioenergy: Open Issues
6.1.3.1 Bioenergy and biodiversity
6.1.3.2 Bioenergy and climate change mitigation
6.1.3.2.1 Climate impacts from indirect land-use change
6.1.3.2.2 Carbon-negative bioenergy?
6.1.3.3 Bioenergy, land, and the level of consumption
6.1.4 Governance of Sustainable Bioenergy
6.2 Sustainability of Bioeconomy
6.2.1 Social Considerations for the Bioeconomy Sustainability Assessment
6.2.1.1 Bioeconomy transitions in societal perceptions
6.2.1.2 Bioeconomy and research interests
6.2.2 Social Methods in Bioeconomy
6.2.3 Job Creation, Working Conditions, and Rural Development
6.2.4 Food Production, GMOs, and Links to the Sustainable Development Goals
6.2.5 Stakeholders, Gender, Skills, and Training
6.2.6 Society Perception, Corporate Sustainability Reporting, and Monitoring
6.3 Socioeconomic Pillar. Methodology and Case Study
6.3.2 Socioeconomic Implications of Bioenergy: A Review
6.3.3 Methodologies to Estimate the Socioeconomic Implications of Bioenergy
6.3.5 Discussion and Conclusions
6.4 Environmental Pillar: Methodology and Case Study
6.4.1 Methodological Background
6.4.2 Application to Bioenergy Chains
6.4.3 Bourgogne Pellets: A Case Study Based on Perennial Biomass Crops
6.4.3.1 Assessing the environmental impact of bioenergy for the full supply chain
6.4.3.2 Optimizing the environmental impact of logistic chains
6.4.3.3 Environmental impact of 1GJ of miscanthus at BP facility gate and scale effect
6.4.3.4 Environmental performances and profitability of alternative logistic options
7. Key Challenges and Opportunities
7.1 Contribution of Bioenergy to Rural Development
7.1.1 The Status of World’s Rural Population
7.1.2 Energy Availability and Supply in Rural Areas
7.1.2.1 Limited access to energy, particularly in developing countries
7.1.2.2 Energy demand and uses in rural areas
7.1.2.2.2 Economic activities
7.1.2.3 Energy carriers required for different uses
7.1.3 Access to Modern Energy Services by Means of Locally Produced Bioenergy
7.1.4 Multifunctionality of Bioenergy in an Integrated Production System for Food, Feed, Energy, and Other Products
7.1.5 Multiplier Effect of Bioenergy in Local Economic Development
7.1.5.3 Economic activity growth and business diversification
7.1.5.4 Driver for innovation
7.1.5.5 Reduction of rural exodus
7.1.6 Environmental Benefits
7.1.7 The Experience of “Bioenergy Villages”
7.1.8 Specific Considerations for Developing Countries
7.1.8.1 The move from traditional energy forms to modern bioenergy
7.1.8.2 Poverty alleviation
7.1.8.3 Improvements in health, education, and communication
7.1.8.4 Development opportunities for women
7.1.9 Potential Risks and Necessary Requirements for a Sustainable and Equitable Development
7.2 Factors for Bioenergy Market Development
7.2.2 Review of Bioenergy Consumer Studies
7.2.2.1 Observations from wood pellet consumer studies
7.2.2.2 Observations from bioenergy and biofuel consumer studies
7.2.3 A Framework for Developing the Bioeconomy
7.2.4 Bioenergy: Policy Context in Europe
7.2.5 National Bioeconomy Strategies
7.2.6 European Commission Market Pull Recommendations
7.2.7 B2B Marketing of Bio-Based Products
7.2.8 Public Procurement as a Market Pull Measure for Bioenergy
7.3.1 Climate Change and Bioenergy Governance
7.3.2 Developing a Climate Change Agenda
7.3.3 Bioenergy Opportunities: Setting the Agenda
7.3.4 Why Creating an International Agenda on Bioenergy?
7.3.5 Bioenergy Challenges: Governance Coordination and NDCs Implementation
7.3.6 Case Study: Colombia’s Biodiversity Strategy as a Multilevel Approach to Governance
7.4 Bioenergy and Food Security: Synergies and Trade-offs
7.4.2 The “Food Versus Fuel” Debate: A False Trade-off?
7.4.3 Rethinking Food Security and Bioenergy Linkages
7.4.4 Where Bioenergy Can Help (or Hurt) Food Security
7.4.4.1 Viable value chains and feedstock choice
7.4.4.2 Prioritizing bioenergy development pathways and policies
8. Land–Water–Energy Nexus of Biofuels Development in Emerging Economies: A Case Study of Bioethanol Policy in Thailand
8.1 Emerging Economies and Biofuels Development
8.2 Land–Water–Energy Nexus and Sustainability of Food and Biofuels Production
8.3 Life Cycle–Based Indicators for Land–Water–Energy Nexus Assessment
8.3.3 Ecological footprint
8.3.4 Relationships of the footprints and land–water–energy nexus
8.4 A Case Study: Land–Water–Energy Nexus of Biofuels Policy Mandate in Thailand
8.4.1 About Thailand and agriculture
8.4.2 The government policy on biofuels promotion
8.4.3 Water scarcity and the bioethanol policy target
8.4.4 Land-GHG emissions nexus of the bioethanol policy target
8.4.5 Feedstock balance for food and bioethanol
8.4.6 Land–water–energy nexus of irrigation system for improving biofuel crop productivity
8.4.7 Nexus management for sustainable bioethanol production in Thailand
III. Future Trends and Policy
9. Innovation on Bioenergy
9.2 Emerging Biofuels From Biochemical-Based Technologies
9.2.1 Bio-solar cell factories
9.2.2 Long-chain fatty alcohols
9.2.3 Long-chain fatty acids
9.2.4 Advanced consolidated bioprocessing
9.3 Emerging Biofuels From Thermochemical-Based Technologies
9.3.1 Solar fuels obtained from gasification and pyrolysis
9.3.2 Novel fuels from hydrothermal liquefaction of biomass
9.3.3 Next generation of aviation and maritime biofuels
9.4 Advanced Renewable Fuels
9.4.1 Fuels from CO2 and renewable energy source–producing power
9.4.2 Combined biomass-to-gas and PtG
9.5 Future Trends on Heat, Cooling, and Power Technologies
9.5.1 Farms and village scale
10. Future Role of Bioenergy
10.1 Bioenergy Perspectives
10.1.1.1 Assessing biomass potentials
10.1.1.2 Global biomass potentials
10.1.1.3 European biomass potentials
10.1.1.4 Outlook—making use of the full biomass potential
10.1.2 Bioenergy in future low-carbon energy systems
10.1.2.1 Future low-carbon energy system
10.1.2.2 Biomass in future global low-carbon energy system
10.1.2.3 Future EU low-carbon energy system
10.1.2.4 Biomass in future EU low-carbon energy system
10.1.3 Perspectives for aviation biofuels
10.1.3.1 Market for biofuel use in aviation
10.1.3.2 Potential for emissions savings in aviation
10.1.4 Perspectives of algae for bioenergy
10.1.4.2 Energy options for algae cultivation
10.1.5 Waste and residues for sustainable bioenergy
10.1.5.1 Opportunities for waste and residues for energy
10.1.5.2 Circular economy and waste
10.1.5.3 Agricultural and forest residues
10.1.5.4 Biogas production
10.1.5.5 Outlook for the use of waste
10.1.6 Role of trade in bioenergy
10.1.6.1 Bioenergy markets and trade
10.1.6.2 International bioenergy trade
10.1.6.3 International trade in biofuels
10.1.6.4 Global solid biomass trade
10.2 Policies and Measures to Support Sustainable Bioenergy
10.2.1 Bioenergy policy context and bioeconomy: evolving framework
10.2.1.1 Towards a low-carbon economy
10.2.1.2 Energy and climate change
10.2.1.3 Bioenergy and bioeconomy
10.2.1.4 Outlook—future developments on bioenergy
10.2.2 Sustainability certification and standards
10.2.2.2 Biofuels sustainability certification
10.2.2.3 Solid and gaseous biomass
10.2.2.4 Sustainability requirements
10.2.2.5 Outlook for sustainability of bioenergy
10.2.3 GHG emissions and carbon accounting for bioenergy
10.2.3.1 Bioenergy and GHG emissions
10.2.3.2 Life cycle assessment of GHG emissions from bioenergy
10.2.3.3 LUCs and GHG emissions
10.2.3.4 Direct land-use change
10.2.3.5 Indirect land-use change
10.2.3.6 Carbon accounting and carbon debt
10.2.3.7 Land use, land-use change and forestry
10.2.4 Support schemes for bioenergy
10.2.4.1 Support schemes for bioenergy
10.2.4.2 Support to fossil and renewable energy
10.2.4.3 Latest developments in support polices for renewables
10.2.5 Bioenergy for sustainable development
10.2.5.1 Bioenergy and UN sustainable development goals
10.2.5.2 Benefits and risks of bioenergy
10.2.5.3 Energy supply and energy access
10.2.5.5 Rural development
10.2.5.6 Bioenergy integration in agriculture and forestry
10.2.5.7 Renewable energy integration into energy systems
The Role of Bioenergy in the Emerging Bioeconomy
：Resources, Technologies, Sustainability and Policy
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