Chapter
1 - ANALYSIS IN NUTRITION RESEARCH
1 - DESIGN OF OBSERVATIONAL NUTRITION STUDIES
1.1 INTRODUCTION TO OBSERVATIONAL NUTRITION STUDIES
1.2 ECOLOGICAL NUTRITION STUDIES
1.2.3 EXAMPLE OF ECOLOGICAL STUDY ON DIET AND CANCER
1.3 CROSS-SECTIONAL NUTRITION STUDIES
1.3.4 EXAMPLE OF THE NATIONAL HEALTH AND NUTRITION EXAMINATION SURVEY
1.4 CASE–CONTROL NUTRITION STUDIES
1.4.4 AN EXAMPLE IN THE STUDY OF HODGKIN LYMPHOMA
1.5 COHORT NUTRITION STUDIES
1.5.4 EXAMPLE OF THE NURSES' HEALTH STUDY
2 - STUDY DESIGN IN EXPERIMENTAL SETTINGS
2.3 PLANNING A DIETARY INTERVENTION
2.3.1 DEFINITION OF THE RESEARCH QUESTION, HYPOTHESIS, AND MAIN OBJECTIVES
2.3.2 PRIMARY AND SECONDARY OUTCOMES
2.3.3.1 Inclusion Criteria
2.3.3.2 Exclusion Criteria
2.3.3.3 Type of Randomization
2.3.3.5 Special Considerations
2.3.4 SELECTION OF THE STUDY DESIGN
2.3.6.1 Development of the Study Protocol
2.3.6.2 Estimation of Study Costs
2.3.6.3 Ethical Approval and Study Registration
2.4 CONDUCTING THE DIETARY INTERVENTION
2.4.1 RECRUITMENT AND SCREENING OF PARTICIPANTS
2.4.2 COMPLIANCE OF PARTICIPANTS
2.4.4 STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
3 - COLLECTION AND MANAGEMENT OF DIETARY DATA
3.2.1 METHODS FOR COLLECTING DIETARY INFORMATION
3.2.1.1 Individual Food Methods
3.2.1.1.1 Weighed Food Record
3.2.1.1.2 Estimated Food Record/Diet Diary (Paper)
3.2.1.1.3 Estimated Food Record/Diet Diary (Electronic)
3.2.1.1.4 24-H recall (Once or Repeated)
3.2.1.2 Food Frequency Methods
3.2.1.2.1 Food Frequency Questionnaire
3.2.1.2.2 Short Food Frequency Questionnaire (Screening Questionnaire)
3.2.1.3 Other Possible Methods
3.2.1.3.1 Food Checklists
3.2.1.3.2 Methods Using New Technology
3.2.1.4 Other Considerations
3.2.1.4.1 Surrogate Reporters
3.2.1.4.2 Infants and Young Children
3.2.1.4.3 Days of the Week and Seasonal Variations
3.2.1.4.5 Combining Dietary Methods
3.2.3 TYPES OF COLLECTED DIETARY INFORMATION
3.2.3.1 Average Daily Energy and Nutrient Intakes
3.2.3.2 Energy-Adjusted Nutrient Intakes
3.2.3.3 Food Group Intakes
3.2.3.4 Meals and Timing of Meals
3.2.3.5 Other Correlates of Dietary Intake
3.3 DATA MANAGEMENT AND DIETARY ANALYSIS
3.3.1.1 Portion Sizes in Individual Foods Methods
3.3.1.2 Portion Sizes in Frequency Methods
3.3.2 ESTIMATIONS OF NUTRIENT CONTENT OF FOODS
3.3.2.1 Food Tables/Food Composition Databases
3.3.2.2 Derivation of Nutrient Intakes From a Food Frequency Questionnaire
3.3.2.3 Linkage of Foods Consumed With Nutrient Content
3.3.2.3.1 Coding Software
3.3.2.4 Other Coding Issues
3.3.2.4.1 Coding Errors and Staff Training
3.3.2.4.2 Photographs of the Meal
3.3.3 CONFIGURATION AND LABELING OF DATASETS
3.3.3.1 Detailed Dataset for Individual Food Methods
3.3.3.2 Average Nutrient Intake Datasets
3.3.3.3 Average Food Intake Datasets
3.3.3.4 Longitudinal Data
3.3.3.5 Other Variables to Be Derived
3.3.4 HANDLING OF FOOD GROUP DATA
3.3.4.1 Food Group Classification Systems
3.3.4.2 Production of Food Group Data
3.3.4.2.1 Food Group Data Using Individual Food Methods
3.3.4.2.2 Food Group Data Using Food Frequency Questionnaires
3.3.4.3 Analysis of Food Group Data
3.4.1 VALIDATION, REPRODUCIBILITY, CALIBRATION, AND BIOMARKERS
3.4.2 MEASUREMENT ERROR, MISREPORTING, AND OUTLIERS
3.4.2.1 Measurement Error
4 - DIETARY PATTERN ANALYSIS
4.2 TYPES OF DIETARY PATTERN ANALYSIS
4.3 A PRIORI DIETARY PATTERN ANALYSIS
4.3.2 KEY ASPECTS FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF A DIETARY SCORE
4.3.2.1 Selection of Dietary Components to Be Included in the Score
4.3.2.2 Choice of Appropriate Variables Describing Each Component More Thoroughly
4.3.2.3 Scoring Methodology for Finally Selected Components of Dietary Score
4.3.2.4 Selection of Cutoff Points for Each Component of the Dietary Score
4.3.2.5 Whether to Adjust for Caloric Intake
4.3.2.6 Relative Contribution of Individual Components to Total Score
4.3.3 DIETARY ASSESSMENT METHODOLOGIES FOR A PRIORI DIETARY PATTERN ANALYSIS
4.3.4 EVALUATION OF THE QUALITY OF AN A PRIORI DIETARY PATTERN
4.3.5 EXAMPLES OF A PRIORI DIETARY PATTERNS
4.3.5.1 The Healthy Eating Index
4.3.5.2 Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension
4.3.5.3 Mediterranean Diet Score
4.3.5.4 Italian Mediterranean Index
4.3.5.5 Total Food Antioxidant Content Score
4.3.5.6 Polyphenol Antioxidant Content Score
4.3.5.7 Dietary Inflammatory Index
4.4 A POSTERIORI DIETARY PATTERN ANALYSIS
4.4.3 EXAMPLES OF FACTOR ANALYSIS
4.4.5 EXAMPLES OF CLUSTER ANALYSIS
4.4.6 COMPARISON OF FACTOR AND CLUSTER ANALYSIS
4.4.7 REPRODUCIBILITY AND VALIDITY OF A POSTERIORI DIETARY PATTERN ANALYSIS
4.5 HYBRID DIETARY PATTERN ANALYSIS
4.5.2 EXAMPLES OF HYBRID DIETARY PATTERN ANALYSIS
4.6 CHALLENGES IN DIETARY PATTERN ANALYSIS
5 - STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF RETROSPECTIVE HEALTH AND NUTRITION DATA
5.3 DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
5.3.2.2 Range, Deviation, Mean Absolute Deviation, Variance, and Standard Deviation
5.3.2.3 Median and Percentiles
5.3.2.4 Other Descriptive Statistical Measures
5.4 ASSESSMENT OF NORMALITY
5.6 PEARSON CHI-SQUARE TEST
5.7 STATISTICAL TESTS FOR COMPARISON OF MEANS
5.7.2 ONE-WAY ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE
5.8 PEARSON CORRELATION COEFFICIENT
5.10 LINEAR REGRESSION ANALYSIS
5.10.1 SIMPLE LINEAR REGRESSION
5.10.1.2 Least-Squares Approach
5.10.1.3 Interpretation of b˜0 and b˜1
5.10.1.4 Assumptions and Coefficient of Determination
5.10.1.5 Data Transformations
5.10.1.6 Application to Dietary Data and Examples
5.10.2 MULTIPLE LINEAR REGRESSION ANALYSIS
5.10.2.2 Interpretation of b˜0 and b˜j
5.10.2.4 Choice of the Best Model
5.10.2.5 Assessment of Interactions
5.10.2.6 Application to Dietary Data and Examples
5.11 LOGISTIC REGRESSION ANALYSIS
5.11.2 SIMPLE BINARY LOGISTIC REGRESSION ANALYSIS
5.11.3 MULTIPLE BINARY LOGISTIC REGRESSION ANALYSIS
6 - STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF PROSPECTIVE HEALTH AND NUTRITION DATA
6.2 DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
6.3 MEASURES TO CALCULATE THE OCCURRENCE OF A HEALTH OUTCOME
6.4.2 KAPLAN–MEIER ANALYSIS
6.4.4 COX REGRESSION ANALYSIS
6.4.4.1 Cox Proportional Hazards Model
6.4.4.2 Application and Examples
7 - META-ANALYSIS OF NUTRITION STUDIES
7.2 METHODOLOGY OF META-ANALYSIS IN NUTRITION RESEARCH
7.2.1 DEFINING THE SEARCH STRATEGY
7.2.2 STUDY SELECTION PROCEDURE
7.3 STATISTICAL METHODOLOGIES APPLIED IN META-ANALYSIS OF NUTRITION STUDIES
7.3.1 STATISTICAL MEASURES OF EFFECT INCLUDED IN META-ANALYSIS
7.3.2 CHOICE OF META-ANALYTICAL METHOD
7.3.3 STATISTICAL HETEROGENEITY
7.3.3.1 Subgroup Analysis
7.3.3.3 Sensitivity Analysis
7.3.3.4 Prediction Intervals
7.3.4 SMALL-STUDY EFFECTS
7.3.5 SOFTWARE FOR META-ANALYSIS
7.4 PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS
7.4.2 STUDY CHARACTERISTICS
7.4.4 ASSESSING HETEROGENEITY
7.4.4.1 Subgroup Analysis
7.4.4.3 Sensitivity Analysis
7.5 LIMITATIONS AND BIASES
8 - PRINCIPLES OF RESEARCH PUBLICATION
8.2 CITATION IMPACT AND METRICS
8.3.4 METHODS AND RESULTS
8.3.5 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
8.4 WEB TOOLS FOR WRITING
8.5 REPORTING DATA AND ANALYSIS
8.5.1 DIETARY EVALUATION AND ANALYSIS
8.5.2 STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
8.5.3.1 Information Line Density
8.5.3.2 Graphical Element Design
8.5.3.3 Information Signal-to-Noise Ratio
8.6.1 SELECTING THE JOURNAL
8.6.2 A WINNING COVER LETTER
8.7 AUTHORSHIP CRITERIA AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
8.8 STRENGTHENING THE REPORTING OF OBSERVATIONAL STUDIES IN EPIDEMIOLOGY AND CONSOLIDATED STANDARDS OF REPORTING TRIALS STATEMENTS
2 - CHALLENGES IN NUTRITION SCIENCE
9 - MEDITERRANEAN DIET: A HEALTH-PROTECTIVE DIETARY PATTERN FOR MODERN TIMES
9.2 SCIENTIFIC DEFINITION OF MEDITERRANEAN DIET
9.2.1 HISTORICAL OVERVIEW
9.2.2 THE TRADITIONAL MEDITERRANEAN DIET
9.3 EVIDENCE ON HEALTH BENEFITS OF THE MEDITERRANEAN DIET
9.3.1 CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES
9.3.4 NONALCOHOLIC FATTY LIVER DISEASE
9.3.5 RHEUMATOID ARTHRITIS
9.4 FOOD COMPONENTS OF MEDITERRANEAN DIET
9.4.1 FISH AND MARINE OMEGA-3 POLYUNSATURATED FATS
9.4.4 FRUITS AND VEGETABLES
9.5 MEDITERRANEAN DIET ADHERENCE IN MODERN TIMES
9.5.1 LEVEL OF ADHERENCE IN MODERN POPULATIONS
9.5.2 CHALLENGES OF ADHERING TO THE MEDITERRANEAN DIET
9.6 SHIFTING TO THE MEDITERRANEAN DIET IN THE MODERN CONTEXT
9.6.1 UPDATED MEDITERRANEAN DIET RECOMMENDATIONS
9.6.2 FOCUS ON SUSTAINABILITY
10 - POLYPHENOL-RICH DIETS IN CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE PREVENTION
10.2 POLYPHENOLS: CLASSES, STRUCTURES, AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
10.3 POLYPHENOLS IN HUMAN DIET
10.3.1 MAJOR DIETARY SOURCES
10.3.2 ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES TO DETERMINE PHENOLIC CONTENTS
10.3.2.1 Folin–Ciocalteu Reagent Method
10.3.2.2 High-Performance Liquid Chromatography Methods
10.3.2.3 pH Differential Method
10.3.3 ESTIMATION OF POLYPHENOL INTAKES IN HUMAN POPULATIONS
10.4 DIETARY POLYPHENOLS AND CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE
10.4.1 CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE INCIDENCE AND MORTALITY: EVIDENCE FROM EPIDEMIOLOGICAL STUDIES
10.4.1.1 Cardiovascular Disease Incidence
10.4.1.2 Coronary Heart Disease (CHD) Incidence
10.4.1.3 Stroke Incidence
10.4.1.4 Cardiovascular Disease Mortality
10.4.1.5 Coronary Heart Disease Mortality
10.4.1.6 Stroke Mortality
10.4.1.7 Current Evidence at a Glance
10.4.2 CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE BIOMARKERS: EVIDENCE FROM EPIDEMIOLOGICAL STUDIES
10.4.2.1 Body Composition
10.4.2.4 Glucose Tolerance
10.4.2.5 Inflammation, Endothelial, and Vascular Function
10.4.2.6 Current Evidence at a Glance
10.4.3 CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE BIOMARKERS: EVIDENCE FROM INTERVENTIONAL STUDIES
10.4.3.1 Polyphenol-Rich Diets
10.4.3.7 Current Evidence at a Glance
10.4.4 BIOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS OF POLYPHENOLS IN CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE PREVENTION
10.4.4.1 Atherosclerotic Pathophysiology
10.4.4.2 Polyphenols as Antioxidants
10.4.4.3 Polyphenols and Endothelial Function
10.4.4.4 Polyphenols and Platelet Aggregation and Plaque Formation
10.4.4.5 Polyphenols and Inflammation
10.5 CHALLENGES IN POLYPHENOL RESEARCH
11 - HYDRATION AND HEALTH
11.1.1 TERMINOLOGY AND MEASUREMENT OF HYDRATION STATUS
11.2 HYDRATION AND KIDNEY HEALTH
11.2.2 HYDRATION AND KIDNEY FUNCTION
11.2.3 ARGININE VASOPRESSIN AND CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE
11.2.4 MESOAMERICAN NEPHROPATHY
11.2.5 OTHER KIDNEY DISEASES
11.2.6 WATER INTAKE INTERVENTION IN CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE
11.3 HYDRATION AND GLUCOSE REGULATION
11.3.2 IMPLICATIONS OF ARGININE VASOPRESSIN IN GLUCOSE REGULATION
11.3.3 OTHER CONSIDERATIONS IN HYDRATION AND GLUCOSE REGULATION
11.4 IMPLICATIONS OF FLUID BALANCE AND OBESITY
11.4.2 SUGAR-SWEETENED BEVERAGES
11.4.3 HYDRATION STATUS AND OBESITY
11.5 HYDRATION AND CARDIOVASCULAR HEALTH
11.5.2 CARDIOVASCULAR EFFECTS
11.6 HYDRATION AND OXIDATIVE STRESS
11.6.2 IMPLICATIONS OF POOR FLUID BALANCE
11.7 HYDRATION AND RISK OF BLADDER CANCER
12 - DIET, HEALTHY AGING, AND COGNITIVE FUNCTION
12.2 DEFINITION AND EPIDEMIOLOGY OF COGNITIVE DECLINE
12.3 BIOACTIVE COMPONENTS OF A HEALTHY DIET AND COGNITIVE DECLINE
12.3.1 ANTIOXIDANT VITAMINS
12.3.3 VITAMINS OF THE B COMPLEX
12.3.4 UNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS
12.4 DIETARY PATTERNS AND COGNITIVE DECLINE
12.4.1 THE MEDITERRANEAN DIET
12.4.2 THE DASH DIET PLAN
12.5 MODERN APPROACHES IN THE STUDY OF DIET AND COGNITIVE HEALTH
13 - DIET AND BONE HEALTH
13.2 BRIEF OVERVIEW OF BONE PHYSIOLOGY
13.2.1 OVERVIEW OF BONE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
13.2.2 BONE MODELING AND REMODELING
13.2.3 ASSESSMENT OF BONE OUTCOMES IN RESEARCH
13.3 CALCIUM AND VITAMIN D
13.3.1 CALCIUM AND BONE, AN OVERVIEW
13.3.2 VITAMIN D AND BONE, AN OVERVIEW
13.3.2.1 Recommended Vitamin D Intake
13.4 LIFE COURSE PERSPECTIVE ON NUTRITION AND BONE
13.4.1 OSTEOPOROSIS: BURDEN AND EPIDEMIOLOGY
13.4.2 ETIOLOGY OF OSTEOPOROSIS AND ROLE OF DIET
13.4.3 MATERNAL NUTRITION AND BONE OUTCOMES
13.4.3.1 Maternal Diet: Observational and Interventional Studies of Bone
13.4.3.2 Maternal Diet: Dietary Pattern Analysis
13.4.4 CHILDHOOD AND ADOLESCENCE
13.4.4.1 Energy and Protein in Childhood and Adolescence
13.4.4.2 Calcium in Childhood and Adolescence
13.4.4.3 Vitamin D in Childhood and Adolescence
13.4.4.4 Dairy Foods and Dietary Patterns in Childhood and Adolescence
13.4.5 BONE HEALTH IN THE OLDER ADULT: MENOPAUSE AND BEYOND
13.4.5.1 Energy and Protein in the Older Adult and Bone Outcomes
13.4.5.2 Calcium in the Older Adult and Bone Outcomes
13.4.5.3 Vitamin D in the Older Adult and Bone Outcomes
13.4.5.4 Mediterranean Diet and Bone Outcomes in the Older Adult
13.4.5.5 Fruit and Vegetables in the Older Adult and Bone Outcomes
13.5 CHALLENGES IN NUTRITION AND BONE RESEARCH
14 - DIET AND LUNG HEALTH
14.2 DIET AND PULMONARY FUNCTION
14.4 DIET AND CHRONIC OBSTRUCTIVE PULMONARY DISEASE
14.4.5 PROBIOTICS AND DIETARY FIBERS
14.5 DIET AND LOWER RESPIRATORY TRACT INFECTIONS
14.5.4 PROBIOTICS–PREBIOTICS
14.6 DIET AND TUBERCULOSIS
14.7 DIET AND LUNG CANCER
14.8 DIET AND CYSTIC FIBROSIS
14.9 DIET AND INTERSTITIAL LUNG DISEASES
14.10 MATERNAL DIET IN EARLY LIFE AND LUNG HEALTH
14.11 CHALLENGES IN DIET AND LUNG HEALTH RESEARCH
Analysis in Nutrition Research
：Principles of Statistical Methodology and Interpretation of the Results
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