Chapter
Chapter 1: Introduction to the Problem, Terminology and Conceptual Framework
A. Prolegomena, Methodology, and Definitions
1. Historical Reconstruction and Other Methodological Approaches to Suffering, Persecution, and Martyrdom in Early Christian Literature
2. Prolegomena and Methodology
3. Definitions: Persecution, Valuation, and Other Key Terms
B. Forms of Capital: Cultural, Social, and Symbolic
1. Pierre Bourdieu on Economic, Cultural, Social, and Symbolic Capital
2. The Transference of Capital
3. Bourdieusian Theory and Early Christian Studies
4. Bourdieu, His Interpreters, and His Critics on Religious and Spiritual Capital
a) Bourdieu and His Interpreters on Religious Capital: The Question of Applicability to the Study of Emerging Christianity
b) From Religious Capital to Spiritual Capital?
5. Cultural Capital and Disputed Authority
6. Persecution and Persuasion
C. The Scope of This Investigation and Its Relevance to Other Areas of Religious and Theological Studies
1. The Scope of This Investigation
3. This Monograph’s Potential Interest to Scholars in Early Christian Studies, as Well as Those in Other Areas of Religious and Theological Studies
Chapter 2: The Pauline Letters: Faithfulness in Withstanding Persecution as Corroboration of Believers’ Standing in Christ and of Paul’s Apostleship
A. Withstanding Persecution as an Integral Component of the Christian Life in the Undisputed Pauline Letters
1. Paul’s Conception of the Suffering of Christ and of Christ’s Followers
2. Preliminary Exhortations for Having Withstood Hardships, Followed by Attention to Congregational Problems (First Thessalonians and Philippians)
3. Romans: Suffering with Christ as a Prerequisite to Glorification and a Basis for the Confidence To Bless One’s Persecutors
4. The Christian Community Should Be Prepared To Suffer Together (1 Cor 12:26)
5. Summation: Readiness To Withstand Persecution as a Sign of Faith(fulness) in Paul
B. Paul as Instigator and Recipient of Persecution: Implications for Paul’s Apostolic Authority
1. The Decreased Stature of Jewish Persecutors (1 Thess 2:14–16)
2. Implications of Paul’s Sinister Past as Persecutor of the Church (1 Cor 15:9–10; Phil 3:2–7; Gal 1:13–24)
a) Paul’s Acknowledgment of Standing as “the Least of the Apostles” (1 Cor 15:9–10)
b) The Polemical Contexts of Phil 3:2–7 and Gal 1:13–24 (pace 1 Cor 15:9–10)
3. Galatians 4–6: The Agitators as Avoiders of Persecution, and Paul’s Suffering as a Corroboration of His Authority
4. The Possibility of Rejoinder to Paul’s Claim That His Suffering, Pain, and Experiences of Persecution Corroborate His Authority
5. Paul’s Hardships as Rejoinder to the “Super-Apostles” and Their Supporters in Corinth (2 Cor 11:23c–33)
a) Literary Context: Charges and Responses in 2 Corinthians 11–12
b) Exegetical Observations: 2 Cor 11:23c–33
c) Conclusion: Valuations of Paul’s Suffering for His Self-defense in 2 Cor 11:23c–33
6. Paul as Persecuted Apostle: Inferences About Paul’s Self-Presentation and Identity
7. Summation: Paul as Past Persecutor and Persecuted Apostle
C. The Suffering of Paul and Other Believers in the Deutero-Pauline Letters
1. Becoming “Worthy” of the Kingdom of God by Bearing Persecutions and Afflictions (2 Thess 1:4–5)
2. The Author of Colossians Posits a Connection Between the Suffering of Jesus and Paul for the Church (Col 1:24)
a) Differences Between the Depictions of Paul’s “Rejoicing” in Col 1:24 and Phil 2:17–18
b) What Is “Remaining,” “Incomplete,” or “Lacking” in Christ’s Afflictions: Paul Suffers in the Absence of Jesus
c) Colossians Does Not Depict the Addressees as Suffering
d) An Implication of Colossians’ Particular Eschatology for Interpreting Christ’s and Paul’s Suffering
e) Paul Suffers “in Place of” (ύπέρ) Christ’s Body the Church
f) Conclusion: The Value to the Deutero-Pauline Author of Colossians of Comparing Paul’s Hardships with Christ’s Sufferings
3. Paul as an Ignorant and Faithless Former Persecutor (1 Tim 1:13)
4. Second Timothy: Paul and Timothy as Models to Every Believer for Enduring Persecution
a) Paul’s Suffering as a Model for Timothy (2 Tim 1:8–12)
b) Paul Suffers, So That the Elect May Attain Salvation (2 Tim 2:8–12, 13; pace Col 1:24)
c) The Relationship of 2 Tim 2:13 to 2:8–12
d) Paul’s Persecutions as Precedent That Every Believer Will Be Persecuted (2 Tim 3:10–12)
e) Paul Commands That Timothy Endure Suffering and Resist ‘Heresy’ (2 Tim 4:1–5)
5. Summation: The Suffering of Paul and Other Christians in the Deutero-Pauline Letters
D. Conclusion: Persecution as a Source of Corroboration in the Pauline Letters
Chapter 3: The Audacity of Hope in First Peter That Faithfulness Amidst Persecution Will “Win” One’s Oppressors and Thereby Further the Christian Mission
A. Prolegomena to Examining Persecution in First Peter
1. Is First Peter Emblematic of Either Petrine or Pauline Christianity?
2. Is First Peter a Letter?
3. Were the Addressees of First Peter “Marginalized,” and Was Their Experience of Persecution (Merely) Local Harassment?
4. The Author’s Confidence in the Addressees and Valuation of Their Suffering
5. Does Any Imperial Persecution Offer a Referent for When First Peter Was Written?
B. Withstanding Hardships as Hope for the Success of the Christian Mission (1 Pet 2:11–4:1a)
1. Defining Unjust Suffering and Its Value for Persuading Outsiders (2:11–17; cf. 4:15)
2. The Imperative That Slaves Follow Christ’s Example of Readiness To Suffer (2:18–25)
3. The Suffering of Christian Wives Presents an Opportunity To “Win” Unbelieving Husbands (3:1–6)
4. The Unlikelihood That Do-Gooders Will Suffer, the Blessedness of Suffering, and Christ’s Example of Victory (1 Pet 3:13–4:1a)
C. Withstanding Hardships as Hope for Eschatological Vindication and Confidence at the Final Judgment (1 Pet 4:1b–5:10)
1. Being “Finished” with Sin Through Suffering (4:1b–c)
2. The Compositional Unity of First Peter: Do 3:14 and 4:12 Pose a Contradiction?
3. Exhortation To Trust in God the Creator and To Hope for Eschatological Vindication When One Suffers (4:12–19)
4. The Apostle Peter as “Witness to Christ’s Sufferings” (5:1)
5. Reassurance of God’s Sustenance After “a Little” (More) Suffering (5:10)
D. Conclusion: Valuations and Possible Difficulties
2. Possible Difficulties with the Author’s Valuations of Suffering
Chapter 4: Persecution, Perseverance and Perfection in the Book of Hebrews
A. The Danger of Apostasy in Hebrews
1. References to Persecution in Hebrews: An Unreliable Basis for Its Date
2. The Danger of Apostasy
B. References to Suffering Past and Present in Hebrews
1. The Exhortation To Remember an Earlier Persecution (10:32–34)
2. Moses’ Suffering for the Messiah and the Suffering of Other Ancient Israelites (11:26, 33–38)
3. Jesus’ Example of Faithfulness When Suffering (12:1–4)
4. Jesus as the Perfected “Perfecter” of Faith (12:2)
5. Readiness To Suffer by Voluntarily Following Jesus “Outside the Camp” (13:13)
C. Conclusion: Possible Difficulties and an Unanswered Question
2. Possible Difficulties with the Value Attached to Suffering in Hebrews
3. An Unanswered Question: How To Be Prepared To Suffer Without a Context of Overt Persecution
Chapter 5: The Offer of Authentication by Withstanding the Coming Great Tribulation in the Revelation of John
A. The Suffering of John and His Addressees
1. The Date of Revelation and the Relevance of the Imperial Cult
2. John’s Suffering as a Corroboration of His Prophetic Status
3. The Challenge of Polytheism and the Imperial Cult
4. John’s Definition of the Problem: Idol Meat and “Immorality” as Traditional Taboos That Offer Precedents Against the Imperial Cult
5. Antipas’ Stature as “Witness” and “Faithful One” Epitomizes Uncompromising Resistance (2:13)
6. The Response John Commands: Non-assimilation and Resistance
B. Visions of Imminent Tribulation and John’s Contingent Offer of Corroboration
1. The Fifth Seal as Divine Judgment Vindicating the Martyrs’ Suffering, and the Imprecatory Prayers of the Saints on Earth (6:9–11; 8:3–5)
2. White Robes and Palm Branches as Signs of the Saints’ Victory and Standing Because They Endured “the Great Tribulation” (7:9–15)
3. The Judgment of Idolatrous Humanity Will Be Analogous to That of the False Christian Prophets (9:20–21; cf. 2:14, 20; 21:8; 22:15)
4. The Extraordinary Power, Endurance, and Vindication of the Two Witnesses (11:1–13)
5. The Inevitability of Suffering, of Being “Conquered” (13:7–10), and of Vindication (15:2–4; 17:14)
6. “Martyrdom” Corroborates Standing To Judge and To Share in the First Resurrection (20:4–6)
7. Orthopraxis as a Component of Resistance and an Indication of Standing (14:4–5, 12; 19:7–8; 20:11–15; 22:10–12)
8. Divine Consolation as Postlude to Vengeance and Vindication (7:17; 21:4)
C. Conclusion: Summation and Possible Responses to John
2. Possible Responses to John’s Valuation of Anticipated Suffering
Chapter 6: Readiness To Suffer as a Confirmation of Standing as Jesus’ Follower in the Gospel of Mark
A. Overview: Mark’s Date and Depictions of “the Disciples”
1. The Date of Mark and the Situation of Hardship Addressed
2. The Twelve, “the Disciples,” and Other Followers of Jesus in Mark
3. Overview: Readiness To Face Hardship as a Necessary Component of Discipleship and the Twelve’s General Lack of Such Readiness in Mark
4. Themes and Interpretive Problems To Be Examined in This Chapter
B. Negative Portrayals of the Twelve and Positive Portrayals of Jesus’ Unnamed Followers in Mark
1. The Interpretation of the Parable of the Sower: The Need To Grow “Root(s)” Before Tribulation or Persecution Arises (4:17)
2. A Commitment To Follow Jesus Requires Readiness To Suffer (8:34–9:1)
3. Hindering an Unknown Exorcist and Defining Broadly Those Who Are “for Us” (9:38–41)
4. On the Twelve Who Left “Everything” for Jesus and the Reward for Anyone Who Does So (10:28–31)
5. The (Limited) Honor Accorded to James and John (10:35–40)
6. From Four Apostles’ Anticipated Suffering (13:9–13a) to the Salvation of “the One Who Endures to the End” (13:13b)
7. The Markan Passion Narrative (I): An Unnamed Woman Anoints Jesus for Burial (14:3–9)
8. The Markan Passion Narrative (II): The Twelve’s Promise To Stand by Jesus (14:27–31) Fulfilled by an Unnamed Bystander (14:47)
9. The Markan Passion Narrative (III): Simon of Cyrene Carries Jesus’ Cross (15:20b–24)
10. The Markan Passion Narrative (IV): An Unnamed Centurion Recognizes Jesus as God’s Suffering “Son” (15:39)
11. Finale: The Women at the Empty Tomb as Continuation of the Persona and the Failures of the Twelve (15:40–16:8)
C. Markan Characterization and Constructions of Legitimacy
2. Positive and Negative Portrayals of the Twelve
3. Conclusion: Markan Characterization as both Encouragement and Warning
D. The Reception of Mark 16:8 and Depictions of Suffering in Alternate Endings to Mark
1. The Shorter Ending of Mark (itk)
2. The Longer Ending of Mark (16:9–20)
3. The Interpolated Longer Ending (W, 032)
4. Summation: Alternate Endings to Mark
Chapter 7: The Persecuted Matthean Disciples and the Transference of Guilt from Scribes and Pharisees to Additional Jews
A. Markan Depictions of Suffering and Discipleship in Matthean Interpretation
1. Receiving the Word with Joy and Remaining Steadfast when Trouble or Persecution Arises (Mark 4:16–17||Matt 13:20–21)
2. Taking Up One’s Cross and Following Jesus (Mark 8:34||Matt 16:24)
3. Matthew’s Omission of Mark 9:38–41 (cf. Matt 12:30)
4. Losing Family Members and Property and Enduring Persecutions Because of Following Jesus (Mark 10:28–31||Matt 19:28–30)
5. Sitting at Jesus’ Right and Left Sides (Mark 10:40||Matt 20:23)
6. Enduring “to the End” and Thus Being “Saved” (Mark 13:13b) Interpreted in the Matthean Mission and Eschatological Discourses
a) Matthew’s Reception of Mark 13:9–13
b) A Source-critical Question: The Possibility That Luke 12:11||Matt 10:19 Stems from Q
7. Recognizing the Importance of Jesus’ Death and Enduring Scorn for Anointing Jesus’ Body for Burial (Mark 14:3–9||Matt 26:6–13)
8. Standing with Jesus at His Arrest (Mark 14:47||Matt 26:51)
9. Carrying Jesus’ Cross (Mark 15:21||Matt 27:32c)
10. Recognizing Jesus as God’s “Son” Because of His Suffering (Mark 15:39|| Matt 27:54)
11. Matthew’s Narrative Beyond the Fearful, Silent Women of Mark 16:8
12. Summation: Matthean Reception and Redaction of Markan Passages
B. Depictions of Suffering and Discipleship in Matthew Not Derived from Mark
2. The Unclear Identity of the Persecutors in the Sermon on the Mount (5:10–12)
3. The Suffering of the Disciples in the Matthean Mission Discourse (10:16–23)
4. The Matthean Parable of the Wedding Celebration (22:1–14)
5. Scribes and Pharisees Who Will Crucify and Flog in the Synagogues, and the Judgment Against “This Generation” and Jerusalem (23:29–39)
a) The Condemnation of Scribes and Pharisees Who Will Crucify and Flog Jesus’ Followers (23:31–35)
b) The Transference of the Scribes’ and Pharisees’ Guilt to Additional Jews (23:36–38)
6. Hardship and Persecution from Gentiles and from Rival Christian Prophets (24:9–14)
C. Conclusion: Matthew’s Progressive Revelation of the Persecutors’ Identity
Chapter 8: The Exclusion and Anticipated Killing of Jesus ’Followers as Critique of the Persecutors’ Concept of “Worship” in the Fourth Gospel
A. Hatred and Persecution of Jesus and His Followers
1. The Persecution of Jesus and Desire To Kill Him (5:16–18)
2. Hatred To Be Directed Toward the Disciples as a Consequence of Hatred Directed Toward Jesus (15:18, 20; 16:33)
B. Exclusion from the Synagogue
1. The Response of the Parents of the Man Born Blind as a Precedent for the Possible Exclusion of the Johannine Community (9:21–23)
2. Fear of the Pharisees: A Second Precedent for the Possible Exclusion of the Johannine Community (12:42–43)
3. The Exclusion of Jesus’ Followers from the Synagogue (16:1–2a)
C. Critiquing the “Worship” of Those Who Will Kill Jesus’ Followers
1. The Decision To Kill both Jesus and Lazarus (12:9–11)
2. John’s Critique of the Persecutors’ “Worship” (16:2b)
D. Conclusion: The Necessity of Readiness To Confess Jesus and To Face Exclusion and Other Hardships in John
Chapter 9: Precedents in Luke for the Persecutions of Acts: The Question of Continuity and Lukan Constructions of Legitimacy
A. Markan Depictions of Suffering and Discipleship in Lukan Interpretation
1. Receiving the Word with Joy and Remaining Steadfast When Trouble or Persecution Arises (Mark 4:16–17||Luke 8:13)
2. Taking Up One’s Cross and Following Jesus (Mark 8:34||Luke 9:23)
3. Casting Out Demons in Jesus’ Name, Despite Opposition from the Twelve (Mark 9:38–41||Luke 9:49–50)
4. Losing Family Members and Property and Enduring Persecutions Because of Following Jesus (Mark 10:28–31||Luke 18:28–30)
5. Sitting at Jesus’ Right and Left Sides (Mark 10:40): A Possible Rationale for This Lukan Omission
6. Enduring “to the End” and Thus Being “Saved” (Mark 13:13b||Luke 21:12–19)
7. Jesus’ Anointing in Mark 14:3–9 and Luke 7:36–50
8. To Flee or Not To Flee: The Steadfastness of the Disciples in Lukan Redaction (Mark 14:46–50; Luke 23:49)
9. Simon’s Example of Carrying the Cross “After” Jesus (Mark 15:21||Luke 23:26)
10. Recognizing Jesus as God’s “Son” Because of His Suffering (Mark 15:39|| Luke 23:48a)
11. Luke’s Narrative Beyond the Fearful, Silent Women of Mark 16:8
12. Summary of Lukan Reception and Redaction of Markan Passages
B. Depictions of Suffering and Discipleship in Luke Not Derived from Mark
1. Persecutions Past and Future: The Israelite Prophets and Jesus’ Followers (Q/Luke 6:20–36)
2. The “Wisdom of God” Predicts the Killing and Persecution of Prophets and Apostles (Q/Luke 11:47–51)
3. The Threat of Herod, the Ostensibly Protective Pharisees, and the Judgment Against Jerusalem (Luke 13:31–35)
4. En Route to the Cross, Jesus Predicts the Suffering of Jerusalem Women (Luke 23:27–31
C. Summation: Congruities and Incongruities Between the Depictions of Suffering in Luke and Acts
Chapter 10: Persecution as a Basis of Legitimation and Critique of the Oppressors’ Standing in the Acts of the Apostles
A. Prolegomena on “the Jews” in Luke-Acts and Luke’s Overarching Literary Enterprise
1. Luke’s Characterizations of Jews/Judeans
2. Narrative Bookends in Luke-Acts: Simeon’s Prediction in the Temple (Luke 2:34–35) and Paul’s Final Pronouncement in Rome (Acts 28:28)
B. Opposition to the Earliest Jesus Movement in Syro-Palestine (Acts 3–12)
1. Acts’ First Depictions of Oppression and Differentiation Between Jesus’ Followers and Their Oppressors (3:1–4:31)
2. The Arrest of All the Apostles (5:17–42)
3. The Killing of Stephen and a Further Definition of the Oppressors’ Standing in Salvation History (6:1–7:50)
4. Paul as Persecutor of the Church (8:1–3)
5. The Necessity That Paul Suffer for Jesus (9:1–19a)
6. Plots To Kill Paul (Attributed to “the Jews”) and the Restored Peace of the Church (9:19b–31)
7. Implicating the Jewish People in Herod’s Arrest of Peter After Herod Killed James (12:1–19)
C. The Persecution of the Pauline Mission to the Jewish Diaspora (Acts 13–19)
1. Opposition from “the Jews” in Perga (13:13–52)
2. Opposition in Iconium (14:1–7)
3. The Stoning of Paul (14:19–20)
4. The Necessity of Suffering To Enter the Kingdom of God (14:21–23)
5. Arrest Followed by Earthquake in Philippi: A Corroboration of Paul’s Legitimacy with Analogy to Peter (16:11–40)
6. Paul and Silas in Thessalonica (17:1–9): A Reprisal of Earlier Jewish Opposition to Paul and Barnabas in Perga (cf. 13:13–52)
7. Acceptance of Paul’s Message Among “Higher Born” Jews in Beroea (17:10–15)
8. Paul Among Jews and Gentiles in Corinth (18:1–17)
a) A Sudden Change in Paul’s Context: Working Outside the Corinth Synagogue (18:1–11)
b) The Persistence of Jewish Opposition to Paul in Corinth (18:12–17)
9. Contrasting Depictions of Paul in the Ephesus Synagogue (18:19–21; 19:8–10)
10. Opposition from Polytheist Silversmiths in Ephesus (19:23–40)
D. Opposition to Paul from Jerusalem to Rome (Acts 20–28)
1. Paul Avoids a Plot of the Jews in Syria (20:1–3)
2. Paul’s Farewell Speech to the Ephesian Elders in Miletus: Anticipating Difficulties That He and the Church Will Face (20:17–38)
a) “The Plots of the Jews” Against Paul in Asia (20:18b–19)
b) Paul’s Anticipated Sufferings (20:22b–23)
c) Paul as “Innocent of the Blood of All People” (20:26)
d) The Anticipated Entrance of “Savage Wolves” to the Churches from Which Paul Departs (20:29–30)
3. Conflicting Oracles in Tyre and Caesarea Predicting Paul’s Suffering (21:4–14)
4. Jews from Asia Observe Paul in the Jerusalem Temple and Subsequently Arrest Him There (21:15–40)
5. Paul’s Speech to the Crowd in Jerusalem: Paul as Persecutor Revisited (22:1–22)
6. Paul Addresses the Sanhedrin (22:23–23:11)
7. The Vow To Kill Paul, the Collusion of the Sanhedrin, and Paul’s Departure from Jerusalem (23:12–35)
8. Paul Before Felix in Caesarea (24:1–27)
9. Paul Before Festus (25:1–12)
10. The Speech Before King Agrippa: Paul as Persecutor Again Revisited (25:13–26:32)
a) Paul’s Innocence (25:13–27)
b) New Disclosures Implicating Paul in the Death of Christians (26:1–11)
c) A Reaffirmation of Paul’s Innocence (26:12–27)
11. Paul’s Journey to Rome and Culminating Pronouncement in the Empire’s Capital City (27:1–28:31)
E. Conclusion: Persecution as a Basis for Questioning, Confirming, and Deriving Legitimacy in Acts
1. Jewish Persecutors and Their Questionable Standing in Salvation History
2. The Standing of Jesus’ Persecuted Followers
3. The Principle of Transference: Deriving Legitimacy for the Lukan Community on the Basis of Past Persecutions
Epilogue: Withstanding Persecution as a Marker of Legitimacy in Ancient and Modern Contexts: Questions of Hermeneutics, Ethics and Theological Method
A. Summation of Chapters 1–10
1. The Exegetical Problem and Conceptual Framework
2. Enduring Persecution as a Corroboration of Standing in the NT
b) First Peter and Hebrews
c) The Revelation of John
B. Ascribing Value to Martyrdom and Persecution in Later Christian Contexts
1. Martyrdom as Corroboration
2. Depictions of Maimed “Confessors” at the Council of Nicaea
a) Theodoret of Cyrus’ Witness to “an Assembly of Martyrs” at Nicaea
b) The Witness of Rufinus to the Confessor Paphnutius of Egypt at Nicaea
c) Literary Representations and Questions of Historicity
3. John Foxe’s “Book of Martyrs”: Anti-Catholic Tendencies and Appeals to Persecution as Corroboration
a) Organization, Themes, and Overarching Agenda of the Acts and Monuments
b) “Inflammatory and Ineradicable Images” of Catholic Persecutors, Especially Under Mary Tudor
c) A (Questionable) Example of Foxe’s Binary Presentations of Catholic Persecutors and Protestant Martyrs: The Death of William Gardiner
d) Critical Responses to Foxe’s Martyrology
C. Ethical Models and the Hermeneutics of Assigning Value to Suffering
1. The Ethical and Hermeneutical Quandary
2. The Hermeneutical Fallacy of Positivistic, Binary Readings
3. Models of New Testament Ethics: Possible Approaches to the Problem Resulting from Assigning Value to Withstanding Persecution
a) Reading Self-Consciously
4. Final Reflection: Does Persecution Offer an Impediment or a Catalyst for Reconciliation?
2. Other Ancient Jewish Sources
5. Other Early Christian Literature
Index of Modern Authors and Persons
Persecution, Persuasion and Power
：Readiness to Withstand Hardship as a Corroboration of Legitimacy in the New Testament
Disclaimer: Any content in publications that violate the sovereignty, the constitution or regulations of the PRC is not accepted or approved by CNPIEC.