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PEASANTS, CITIZENS AND SOLDIERS

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Copyright

Contents

Tables

Maps

Note on abbreviations

Preface

CHAPTER 1 Evidence, theories and models in Roman population history

1.1 INTRODUCTION

1.2 ROMAN DEMOGRAPHY: LOW COUNT VERSUS HIGH COUNT

1.3 TRADITIONAL TYPES OF EVIDENCE: LITERARY SOURCES AND RURAL SURVEY DATA

1.4 NEW APPROACHES

1.4.1 Evidence for land clearance

1.4.2 Evidence for the size of Italian towns

1.4.3 Osteological evidence

1.4.4 Estimates of carrying capacity

1.4.5 Comparative evidence

1.4.6 Climate change

1.4.7 Commercial grain imports

1.4.8 Imperial expansion and population growth

1.5 OLD AND NEW APPROACHES TO ROMAN DEMOGRAPHY: STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS

CHAPTER 2 Polybius’ manpower figures and the size of the Italian population on the eve of the Hannibalic War

2.1 INTRODUCTION

2.1.1 Low count

2.1.2 High count

2.1.3 Other interpretations

2.2 SOME WEAKNESSES OF EXISTING INTERPRETATIONS

2.2.1 Towards a new interpretation: the background to the tally of 225 BC

2.2.2 Age groups in the armies of the Republic

2.2.3 Some further implications

2.4 THE POPULATION OF ITALY IN 225 BC

2.5 THE POLYBIAN MANPOWER FIGURES AND ROMAN MOBILIZATION RATES

2.6 CONCLUSIONS

CHAPTER 3 Census procedures and the meaning of the republican and early-imperial census figures

3.1 INTRODUCTION

3.1.1 A very short account of the republican census

3.1.2 The central problem: census procedures and registration rates

3.2 THE TARGET POPULATION OF THE REPUBLICAN CENSUSES: IUNIORES AND SENIORES

3.2.1 Citizens sui iuris and citizens alieni iuris

3.2.2 Cives optimo iure and cives sine suffragio

3.2.3 Legionaries serving outside Italy

3.2.4 Assidui and proletarii

3.3 CENTRALIZED AND DECENTRALIZED CENSUS PROCEDURES BEFORE THE SOCIAL WAR

3.4 THE CENSUS FIGURE FOR 86/85 BC

3.5 SOME OTHER PIECES OF EVIDENCE

3.6 REPUBLICAN CENSUS PROCEDURES: SOME PROVISIONAL CONCLUSIONS

3.7 A CHANGE IN REGISTRATION OR REPORTING PRACTICES UNDER AUGUSTUS?

3.7.1 Interpreting the Augustan census figures: philological and technical arguments

3.7.2 Comparative perspectives on the Augustan census figures

3.6 CONCLUSIONS

CHAPTER 4 Peasants, citizens and soldiers, 201 BC–28 BC

4.1 INTRODUCTION

4.2 DEVELOPMENTS BETWEEN 201 BC AND 163 BC: FOUR QUESTIONS

4.2.1 The impact of the Hannibalic War and the census figure for 203 BC

4.2.2 Demographic recovery after the Second Punic War

4.2.3 The rationale behind viritane distributions and colonization

4.2.4 The low count and the spread of agricultural slavery

4.3 DEVELOPMENTS BETWEEN 163 BC AND 133 BC:THE BACKGROUND TO THE GRACCHAN LAND REFORMS

4.3.1 The Gracchan land reforms in the literary tradition

4.3.2 Theories of demographic decline: poverty and its consequences

4.3.3 More slaves = fewer rural citizens?

4.3.4 Recruitment and losses on the battlefield

4.3.5 An alternative low-count reconstruction

4.3.6 Competing low-count readings of the census figures for the period 163 BC–124 BC

4.3.7 The high count and the Gracchan land reforms

4.3.8 Survey archaeology and the Gracchan ‘crisis’

4.4 DEVELOPMENTS BETWEEN 133 BC AND 28 BC

4.4.1 Marius and the proletarianization of the legions

4.4.2 Emigration from Italy

4.4.3 Emigration, urbanization and the decline of the free population

4.5 CONCLUSIONS

CHAPTER 5 The Augustan census figures and Italy’s urban network

5.1 INTRODUCTION

5.1.1 The geographical distribution of the population

5.1.2 Italy’s urban network at the time of Augustus

5.1.3 Definitional problems

5.1.4 Some methodological considerations

5.2 THE URBAN NETWORK OF CISALPINE GAUL IN 28 BC

5.2.1 Some ingredients for a more detailed analysis

5.2.2 Expected urbanization rates

5.2.3 Expected urban population densities

5.2.4 A low-count model for Cisalpine Gaul

5.2.5 A high-count model for Cisalpine Gaul?

5.3 THE POPULATION OF CENTRAL AND SOUTHERN ITALY

5.3.1 Expected urbanization rates in central and southern Italy

5.3.2 Expected urban population densities in central and southern Italy

5.4 THE URBAN NETWORK OF CENTRAL AND SOUTHERN ITALY IN 28 BC: A BRIEF OUTLINE

5.4.1 Some low-count models for central and southern Italy

5.4.2 Some high-count models for central and southern Italy

5.5 SOME GENERAL CONCLUSIONS

CHAPTER 6 Survey archaeology and demographic developments in the Italian countryside

6.1 INTRODUCTION

6.2 METHODOLOGICAL PROBLEMS

6.3 DIACHRONIC PATTERNS AND THEIR INTERPRETATION

6.4 TRENDS IN SITE NUMBERS, 300 BC–AD 100

6.5 RURAL SURVEY DATA AND DEMOGRAPHIC MODELS

6.6 SITE DENSITIES IN THE SUBURBIUM:TOWARDS A LOW-COUNT EXPLANATION

6.7 LAND AND LABOUR IN CENTRAL-WESTERN ITALY, 200 BC–AD 100

6.8 CONCLUSIONS

Epilogue

APPENDIX I: Cities and towns in early-imperial Cisalpina

1. LARGE TOWNS (> 40 HA) ( 1 5 TOWNS)

2. MEDIUM-SIZED TOWNS (20–40 HA. ) ( 3 1 TOWNS, OF WHICH 29 KNOWN)

3. SMALL TOWNS (<20 HA) (32 TOWNS, OF WHICH 18 KNOWN)

APPENDIX II: Cities and towns in central and south Italy

1. LATIUM (51 TOWNS)

2. CAMPANIA (29 TOWNS)

3. PICENUM (23 TOWNS)

4. UMBRIA AND THE AGER GALLICUS (48 TOWNS)

5. ETRURIA (47 TOWNS)

6. SAMNIUM (39 TOWNS)

7. APULIA (73 TOWNS)

8. LUCANIA AND BRUTTIUM (32 TOWNS)

APPENDIX III: Population figures for largest northern cities, AD 1600

APPENDIX IV: Some ingredients for a revised low-count model

Bibliography

Index