Chapter
Molecular Weight Determination
Types of crystalline solids
Characteristics of Liquid Crystal State
Supercritical Fluid State
Changes in the State of Matter
Single component (C=1) system (Fig. 1.7)
Two-component (C=2) system containing liquid phases (Fig. 1.8)
Two-component (C=2) system containing solid and liquid phases (Fig. 1.9)
Three-component (C=3) system (Fig. 1.10)
Chapter 2 - Micromeritics
Fundamental Properties of Particles
Particle Size and Size Distribution
Spherical or symmetrical particle
Nonspherical or asymmetrical particle
Particle size distribution
Frequency distribution curve
Cumulative frequency distribution curve
Particle Size Determination Methods
Coulter Counter Method (Particle Volume Measurement)
Surface-volume shape coefficient
Surface Area Determination Methods
Derived Properties Of Powders
Density Determination Methods
Method I-Graduated cylinder method
Method II-Scott volumeter
Mercury displacement method or mercury porosimetry
Characterization Of Powder Flow
Dynamic or kinetic angle of repose
Flow Rate Through an Orifice
Improvement of Flow Property
Chapter 3 - Pharmaceutical Rheology
Elastic Deformation and Viscous Flow
Hooke's law of elasticity
Newton's law of viscous flow
Temperature Dependence of Viscosity
Time-Independent Non-Newtonian Fluids
Time-Dependent Non-Newtonian Flow
Bulges and spurs in thixotropy
Negative Thixotropy or Antithixotropy
Determination of Rheological Properties: Measurement of Viscosity
Ubbelohde suspended level viscometer
Density-Dependent Viscometers
Falling sphere viscometer
Cone and plate viscometers
Non-Newtonian Corrections
Measurement of Thixotropy
Structural Breakdown with Increasing Rates of Shear (M)
Structural Breakdown with Time at Constant Rate of Shear (B)
Viscoelasticity Mechanism
Standard linear solid model (Maxwell form)
Specialized Pharmaceutical Applications of Rheology
Yield Value and Suspensions
Plug Flow-Artifactual Observations
Rheological Use of Mixing Equipment
Chapter 4 - Surface and Interfacial Phenomena
Surface-Active Agents (Surfactants)
Classification of Surfactants
Alkali soaps (sodium and potassium stearate)
Metallic soaps (calcium stearate)
Alkyl sulphates and phosphates (sodium lauryl sulphate)
Alkyl sulphonates (sodium dioctyl sulphosuccinate also known as aerosol AT)
Hydrophilic-Lipophilic Balance Concept
Determination of Surfactant Amount
Application of Surfactants
Pharmaceutical applications
Surface And Interfacial Tension
Expression of Surface Tension
In terms of force per unit length
In terms of energy per unit area increase
In terms of pressure difference across curved surface
Measurement Of Surface And Interfacial Tension
Upward force due to surface tension
Downward force due to the weight of the liquid
Drop Weight and Drop Count Methods
Ring Detachment Method (du Nouy tensiometer)
Wetting And Contact Angle
Spreading Coefficient (S)
Critical Micelle Concentration
Influence of CMC on the Physical Properties
Molecular structure of the surfactant
Hydrocarbon chain in the hydrophobic group
Insoluble Monomolecular Films
Interfacial Complex Condensed Films
Lamellar Liquid Crystalline Films
Factors Affecting Adsorption
Applications of Adsorption
Electrical Properties Of Interfaces
Specialized Surfactant Based Systems
Chapter 5 - Buffers and Isotonic Solutions
Buffer Equation for Weak Acid and Its Salt
Buffer Equation for Weak Base and Its Salt
Selection of Buffer System
Stabilization of Drug Substances in Formulations by Buffers
Use of Buffers to Study the pH-stability Profile of Drug Substances
Use of Buffers to Study the pH Dependence of Drug Substance Solubility
Buffered Isotonic Solutions
Methods of Adjusting Tonicity
Sodium chloride equivalent method
Chapter 6 - Complexation and Protein Binding
Classification of Complexes
Organic Molecular Complexes
Charge-Transfer Complexes
Hydrogen-Bonded Complexes
Inclusion Compound (Or No Bond Complexes)
Channel Lattice Complexes
Intercalation Compound or Layer-type Complexes
Monomolecular Inclusion Compounds
Macromolecular Inclusion Compounds
Job's Method of Continuous Variation
Phase-Distribution Method
Protein Binding: Small Molecule-Macromolecule Complexes
Significance of Protein Binding
Methods for Determining Protein Binding
Equilibrium dialysis method
Thermodynamic Treatment of Stability Constants
Chapter 7 - Colloidal Dispersions
Classification of Colloids
Association Colloids (Micelles)
Preparation of Colloidal Dispersions
Properties of Colloidal Dispersions
Stability of Colloidal Systems
Stability of lyophobic colloids-DLVO theory
Stability of lyophilic colloids
Colloidal Drug-Delivery Systems
Chapter 8 - Pharmaceutical Suspensions
Theoretical Considerations
Particle Size Consideration
Wetting and Contact Angle
Particle Behaviour and Interactions
Flocculated and Deflocculated Suspensions
Deflocculants and Dispersing Agents
Crystal growth or Ostwald ripening
Polymorphic transformation
Evaluation of Suspension Stability
Organoleptic Aspects (Colour, Taste and Flavour)
Electrokinetic Techniques
Pharmaceutical Nanosuspensions
Chapter 9 - Pharmaceutical Emulsions
Theoretical Considerations
Reduction of Interfacial Tension: Thermodynamic Stabilization
Interfacial Film Formation: Mechanical Barrier to Coalescence
Monomolecular film formation by surface-active agents
Multimolecular film formation by hydrophilic colloids
Solid particle film formation by finely divided solids
Electrical Repulsion: Electrical Barrier to Approach of Particles
Determination of emulsifier amount
Emulsification Techniques (Emulsion Formation)
Phase Inversion Technique
Low-Energy Emulsification
Spontaneous Emulsification
Assessment of Emulsion Shelf Life
Chapter 10 - Diffusion and Drug Release
Applications of Diffusion Principles
Drug Absorption by Passive Diffusion
Drug Absorption by Facilitated Diffusion
Percutaneous or Transdermal Absorption
Ostwald Ripening in Emulsions
Bioadhesion and Mucoadhesion
In Vitro Permeation Studies
Osmotically Controlled Delivery Systems
Drug Release from Polymer Matrices
Matrix/monolithic Systems
Diffusion During Swelling of Matrix
Diffusion in Matrix Erosion
Chapter 11 - Drug Dissolution
Interfacial barrier model (Limited solvation theory)
Diffusion-Limited Model or Film Theory
Noyes-Whitney Relationship
Hixon-Crowell Cubic Root Law
Factors Affecting Dissolution
Factors Affecting the Surface Area of the Drug (S)
Factors Affecting the Saturation Solubility of the Drug (Cs)
Factors Affecting Dissolution Volume (V)
Factors Affecting Diffusivity (D)
Factors Affecting the Thickness of Hydrodynamic Layer (h)
Dissolution Test Parameters
Eccentricity of the stirring device
Alignment of the stirring element
Compendial Dissolution Methods
Basket Apparatus (USP Apparatus 1)
Paddle Apparatus (USP Apparatus 2)
Dissolution Profile Comparison
In Vitro-In Vivo Correlation
Biopharmaceutical Classification System
Chapter 12 - Kinetics, Degradation and Stability
Apparent/Pseudo-Zero-Order Reaction
Pseudo-First-Order Reaction
Determination of Order of Reaction
Graphical Substitution Method
Reverse/Opposing Reactions
Consecutive/Series Reactions
Factors Influencing Reaction Rates
Medium Effects: Solvent, Ionic Strength and Dielectric Constant
pH-Specific Acid-Base Catalysis
General Acid-Base Catalysis
Decomposition and Stabilization of Pharmaceuticals
Protection from hydrolysis
Hydroperoxide decomposition
Protection from Oxidation
Expiration Dating of Pharmaceuticals
Accelerated Stability Studies (Shelf-Life Determination)
Prediction of shelf life from accelerated stability-testing data
Practical Example: Estimation of degradation from accelerated data: First-order case
Limitations of Accelerated Stability Testing
Other Techniques for Stability Prediction
Experiment 1 Ternary Phase Diagram
Observation and Calculation
Experiment 2 Particle Size By Optical Microscopy
Observations and Calculations
Experiment 3 Particle Size By Sieving
Observations and Calculations
Experiment 4 Flow Property Of Powder
Observations and Calculations
Experiment 5 Angle Of Reposex
Observations and Calculations
Observations and Calculations
Experiment 6 Density Determination
Observations and Calculations
Experiment 7 Ostwald Viscometer
Observations and Calculations
Experiment 8 Falling Sphere Viscometer
Observations and Calculations
Experiment 9 Spreading Coefficient
Observations and Calculations
Experiment 10 Critical Micelle Concentration
Observations and Calculations
Calculation of Surface Tension
Experiment 11 Buffer preparation
Observation and Calculation
Experiment 12 Colloidal Solution
Experiment 13 Physical Stability of Suspension
Observations and Calculations
Experiment 14 Dissolutilution Profile of Tabltablet
Observations and Calculations
Table for λ max determination
Table for calibration curve
Experiment 16 Kinetics-II
Observations and Calculations
Data Analysis (Record the following data in Table 5)
Multiple Choice Questions (useful for GPAT aspirants)
Theory and Practice of Physical Pharmacy
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