Chapter
1.1 Historical introduction
2 Basic concepts: a qualitative introduction
2.1 A qualitative introduction to the basic concepts and ideas
2.1.1 Young’s experiment (1801–3)
2.1.2 Using Young’s slits to measure the size of a light source
2.2 Some basic wave concepts
2.2.2 Huygens’ principle: propagation of limited or distorted waves, and gravitational lensing
2.3 Electromagnetic waves and photons
3 Interference, diffraction and coherence
3.1 Interference and diffraction
3.1.1 Interference and interferometers
3.1.2 Diffraction using the scalar wave approximation
3.1.3 Fraunhofer diffraction patterns of some simple apertures
Young’s slits with a phase difference between them
3.1.4 The point spread function
3.1.5 The optical transfer function
3.2.1 The effect of uncertainties in the frequency and wave vector
3.2.2 Coherent light and its importance to interferometry
3.3 A quantitative discussion of coherence
3.3.2 The relationship between the coherence function and fringe visibility
3.3.3 Van Cittert–Zernike theorem
A circular star with angular diameter Alpha
A circular star with a monotonic decrease of intensity with radius
A binary pair of point stars
A binary pair of disk-like stars
3.4 Fluctuations in light waves
3.4.1 A statistical model for quasimonochromatic light
3.4.2 Intensity correlation – the second-order coherence function
4.1.1 The optics of aperture synthesis
4.1.2 Sampling the (u, v) plane
4.1.3 The optimal geometry of multiple telescope arrangements
4.2 From data to image: the phase problem
4.2.1 What can be done to measure phases? Phase closure
4.3 Image restoration and the crowding limitation
4.3.1 Algorithmic image restoration methods
4.3.2 The crowding limitation
4.4 Signal detection for aperture synthesis
4.4.1 Wave mixing and heterodyne recording
4.5 A quantum interpretation of aperture synthesis
4.6 A lecture demonstration of aperture synthesis
5 Optical effects of the atmosphere
5.2 A qualitative description of optical effects of the atmosphere
5.3 Quantitative measures of the atmospheric aberrations
5.3.1 Kolmogorov’s (1941) description of turbulence
5.3.2 Parameters describing the optical effects of turbulence: Correlation and structure functions, B(r) and D(r).
5.4 Phase fluctuations in a wave propagating through the atmosphere
5.4.1 Fried’s parameter r describes the size of the atmospheric correlation region
5.4.2 Correlation between phase fluctuations in waves with different angles of incidence: the isoplanatic patch
5.5 Temporal fluctuations
5.5.1 The wind-driven “frozen turbulence” hypothesis
5.5.2 Frequency spectrum of fluctuations
5.5.3 Intensity fluctuations: twinkling
5.6 A summary of the way the dependence of turbulence on height affects various optical parameters
5.7 Dependence of atmospheric effects on the wavelength
5.8.1 Measuring the wavefront distortion
The Hartmann–Shack sensor
5.8.3 Tip–tilt correction
5.9 Short exposure images: speckle patterns
5.9.1 A model for a speckle image
6 Single-aperture techniques
6.2 Masking the aperture of a large telescope
6.3 Using the whole aperture: speckle interferometry
6.3.1 Theory of speckle interferometry
6.3.2 Experimental speckle interferometry
6.3.3 Some early results of speckle interferometry
6.4 Speckle imaging: getting round the limitations of the spatial autocorrelation function
6.4.1 The Knox–Thompson algorithm
6.4.2 Speckle masking, or triple correlation
6.4.3 Spectral speckle masking
7 Intensity interferometry
7.2 Intensity fluctuations and the second-order coherence function
7.2.1 The classical wave interpretation
7.2.2 The quantum interpretation
7.3 Estimating the sensitivity of fluctuation correlations
7.4 The Narrabri intensity interferometer
7.4.1 The electronic correlator
7.5 Data analysis: stellar diameters, double stars and limb darkening
7.7 Retrieving the phase of the coherence function from intensity correlations
8 Amplitude interferometry: techniques and instruments
8.1.1 The Michelson stellar interferometer
8.1.2 The Narrabri Intensity Interferometer
8.2 What do we demand of an interferometer?
8.3 The components of modern amplitude interferometers
8.3.1 Subapertures and telescopes
8.3.2 Beam lines and their dispersion correction
8.3.3 Correction of angular dispersion
8.3.4 Path-length equalizers or delay lines
8.3.5 Beam-reducing optics
8.3.7 Semireflective beam-combiners
8.3.8 Optical fiber and integrated optical beam-combiners
8.3.9 Star tracking and tip–tilt correction
8.3.10 Fringe dispersion and tracking
8.3.11 Estimating the fringe parameters
8.3.12 Techniques for measuring in the photon-starved region
8.4 Modern interferometers with two subapertures
8.4.1 Heterodyne interferometers
8.4.2 Interféromètre à 2 Télescopes (I2T)
8.4.3 Grand interféromètre à deux télescopes (GI2T)
8.4.4 The Mark III Interferometer
8.4.5 Sydney University stellar interferometer (SUSI)
8.4.6 The large binocular telescope (LBT)
8.4.7 The Mikata optical and infrared array (MIRA-I.2)
8.4.8 Palomar testbed interferometer (PTI)
8.4.9 Keck interferometer
8.5 Interferometers with more than two subapertures
8.5.1 The Cambridge optical aperture synthesis telescope (COAST)
8.5.2 Center for High Angular Resolution Astronomy (CHARA)
8.5.3 Infrared optical telescope array (IOTA)
8.5.4 Navy prototype optical interferometer (NPOI)
8.5.5 The Berkeley infrared spatial interferometer (ISI)
8.5.6 Very large telescope interferometer (VLTI)
9.1 Imaging with very high resolution using multimirror telescopes
9.2 The physical optics of pupil densification
9.2.1 A random array of apertures
Analysis of an undensified array
Analysis of a densified array
9.2.2 A periodic array of apertures
9.3 The field of view of a hypertelescope and the crowding limitation
9.4 Hypertelescope architectures
9.4.1 Michelson’s stellar interferometer as a hypertelescope, and multi-aperture extensions
9.4.2 Hypertelescope versions of multitelescope interferometers
9.4.3 Carlina hypertelescopes
9.4.4 A fiber-optical version of the hypertelescope
9.5 Experiments on a hypertelescope system
10 Nulling and coronagraphy
10.1 Searching for extrasolar planets and life
10.2 Planet detection methods
10.2.1 The relative luminosities of a star and planet
10.2.2 Requirements for imaging planet surface features
10.3.1 Apodization using binary masks
10.3.2 Apodization using phase masks
10.4 Nulling methods in interferometers
10.4.1 Bracewell’s single-pixel nulling in nonimaging interferometers
10.4.2 Bracewell nulling in imaging interferometers
10.4.3 Achromatic nulling in Bracewell interferometers
10.4.4 Starlight leakage in nulling interferometers
10.5 Imaging coronagraphy
10.5.1 The Lyot coronagraph in its original and stellar versions
10.5.2 The Roddier–Roddier phase-dot coronagraph
10.5.3 Four-quadrant phase-mask and phase-spiral coronagraphs
10.5.4 The achromatic interference coronagraph
10.5.5 Elementary modeling of mask coronagraphs
10.5.6 Mirror bumpiness tolerance calculated with Maréchal’s equation
10.6 Further cleaning, coherent and incoherent, for high-contrast coronagraphy and apodization
10.6.1 Adaptive coherent correction of mirror bumpiness
10.6.2 Adaptive hologram within the coronagraph
10.6.3 Incoherent cleaning of recorded images
10.6.4 Comparison of coherent and incoherent cleaning
11 A sampling of interferometric science
11.1 Interferometric science
11.2 Stellar measurements and imaging
11.2.1 Stellar diameters and limb darkening
11.2.2 Star-spots, hot spots
11.2.5 Young stellar object disks and jets
11.2.6 Dust shells, Wolf–Rayets
11.3 Galactic and extragalactic sources
11.3.3 The galactic center
11.4.1 The Galilean satellites
11.6 Solar feature imaging and dynamics measurements
12 Future ground and space projects
12.1 Future ground-based projects
12.1.1 New ground-based long-baseline interferometers
12.1.2 The optical very large array (OVLA)
12.1.3 Toward large Carlina hypertelescopes
12.1.4 Comparison of OVLA and Carlina concepts
12.1.5 Comparing compact and exploded ELTs
12.1.6 Coupling telescopes through fibers: the OHANA project at Mauna Kea
12.2 Future space projects
12.2.1 Flotillas of mirrors
12.2.3 Terrestrial planet finder (TPF)
12.2.4 Space interferometry mission (SIM)
12.2.5 The exo-Earth imager (EEI)
12.3 Simulated images of exo-Earths obtainable with the Exo-Earth Imager
12.3.1 Some speculations on identifying life from colored patches
12.4 Extreme baselines for a Neutron Star Imager; maximal size of interferometers and hypertelescopes in space
A.1 Electromagnetic waves: a summary
A.1.1 Plane and spherical electromagnetic waves
A.1.2 Energy and momentum in waves
A.2 Propagation of electromagnetic waves in coiled structures: geometrical phase
A.3.1 The Fourier transform
A.3.2 Some simple examples
A.3.4 Sampling and aliasing
A.4 Fraunhofer diffraction
A.4.1 Random objects and their diffraction patterns: speckle images
An Introduction to Optical Stellar Interferometry
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