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THE ECOLOGY OF SANDY SHORES

THE ECOLOGY OF SANDY SHORES

Copyright

Contents

Acknowledgments

A Tribute to Alec Brown

ALEXANDER CLAUDE BROWN 1931–2005

1 - Introduction

2 - The Physical Environment

2.1 INTRODUCTION

2.2 THE LITTORAL ACTIVE ZONE

2.3 SAND

Particle Size

Porosity and Permeability

Penetrability

2.4 WAVES

Types of Waves

Wave Energy

Refraction

Shoaling and Breaking

Bound and Infragravity Waves: Surf Beat

Edge Waves

2.5 OTHER DRIVERS OF WATER MOVEMENT

Tides

Internal Waves

Wind

2.6 SAND TRANSPORT

2.7 INTERACTIONS AMONG BEACH SLOPE, WAVES, TIDES, AND SAND

2.8 BEACH INDICES

2.9 BEACH TYPES

Wave-Dominated Beaches

Tidal Effects

2.10 CIRCULATION CELLS AND MIXING

2.11 EMBAYMENTS AND HEADLANDS

2.12 SWASH CLIMATE

2.13 SLOPE

2.14 LATITUDINAL EFFECTS

2.15 CONCLUSIONS

3 - The Interstitial Environment

3.1 INTRODUCTION

3.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SYSTEM

Grain Size

Mineralogy

Sorting

Grain Shape

Porosity

Pore Size

Permeability

Moisture Content

Thixotropy and Dilatancy

3.3 PROCESSES OF WATER INPUT

Groundwater Discharge

Tides

Beach Face Wave Run-up

Subtidal Wave Pumping

3.4 WATER FILTRATION

Volumes and Residence Times of Tide- and Wave-Driven Inputs

Flow Patterns and Interstitial Climate

Subtidal Wave Pumping: Input Volumes and Flow Patterns

3.5 WATER TABLE FLUCTUATIONS

Tidal Effects

Groundwater and Swash Effects

Influence on Beach Face Erosion/Accretion

Zones of Interstitial Moisture

3.6 INTERSTITIAL CHEMISTRY

Temperature

Groundwater Inputs

Salinity

Organic Inputs

Oxygen Concentrations

Nutrients

3.7 THE INTERSTITIAL ENVIRONMENT

3.8 CONCLUSIONS

4 - Beach and Surf-Zone Flora

4.1 INTRODUCTION

4.2 BENTHIC MICROFLORA

4.3 SURF-ZONE PHYTOPLANKTON

4.4 SEAGRASSES

4.5 CONCLUSIONS

5 - Sandy-Beach Invertebrates

5.1 INTRODUCTION

5.2 IMPORTANT GROUPS

Phylum: Porifera

Phylum: Cnidaria

Phylum: Platyhelminthes

Phylum: Acoelomorpha

Phylum: Gnathostomulida

Phylum: Nemertea

Phylum: Nematoda

Phylum: Acanthocephala

Phylum: Rotifera

Phylum: Gastrotricha

Phylum: Kinorhyncha

Phylum: Loricifera

Phylum: Annelida

Phylum: Echiura

Phylum: Sipuncula

Phylum: Brachiopoda

Phylum: Mollusca

Phylum: Tardigrada

Phylum: Arthropoda

Phylum: Bryozoa

Phylum: Echinodermata

Phylum: Hemichordata

5.3 CONCLUSIONS

6 - Adaptations to Sandy-Beach Life

6.1 INTRODUCTION

6.2 LOCOMOTION

Burrowing

Surfing and Coping With Swash

6.3 RHYTHMS OF ACTIVITY

6.4 SENSORY RESPONSES AND ORIENTATION

6.5 CHOICE OF HABITAT

6.6 NUTRITION

6.7 RESPIRATION

6.8 ENVIRONMENTAL TOLERANCES

6.9 REPRODUCTION

6.10 AGGREGATIONS AND GREGARIOUSNESS

6.11 AVOIDANCE OF PREDATORS

6.12 PHENOTYPIC PLASTICITY

6.13 CONCLUSIONS

7 - Benthic Macrofauna Communities

7.1 INTRODUCTION

7.2 SAMPLING

Sample Area and Species Accumulation Curves

Species–Area Relationships

7.3 TAXONOMIC COMPOSITION

7.4 MACROSCALE PATTERNS

Species Richness

Abundance, Biomass, and Density

Latitude

Factors Controlling Large-Scale Patterns

Deconstructing Diversity

Other Trends: Body Size and Density

Body Size

7.5 MESOSCALE PATTERNS

Beach Length

Alongshore Variation

Across-Shore Variation

Zonation

Temporal Changes in Zonation

7.6 MICROSCALE: THE FORGOTTEN DIMENSION

7.7 SPECIES INTERACTIONS

Trophic Relations

Wrack-Dominated Shores

Predation

Competition

Mutualism and Commensalism

Parasitism

Disturbance, Succession, and Colonization

7.8 CONCLUSIONS

8 - Benthic Macrofauna Populations

8.1 INTRODUCTION

8.2 MACROSCALE PATTERNS

Latitude

Beach Types, Zones, and Life Histories

Metapopulations and Connectivity

Long-Term Fluctuations

8.3 MESOSCALE PATTERNS

Alongshore

Across Shore

Temporal Changes

8.4 MICROSCALE PATTERNS

8.5 CONCLUSIONS

9 - Interstitial Ecology

9.1 INTRODUCTION

9.2 INTERSTITIAL CLIMATE

9.3 SAMPLING

9.4 INTERSTITIAL BIOTA

9.5 DISTRIBUTION OF INTERSTITIAL FAUNA

9.6 TEMPORAL CHANGES

9.7 MEIOFAUNAL COMMUNITIES

9.8 TROPHIC RELATIONSHIPS

9.9 BIOLOGICAL INTERACTIONS

9.10 MEIOFAUNA AND POLLUTION

9.11 CONCLUSIONS

10 - Surf-Zone Zooplankton and Nekton

10.1 INTRODUCTION

10.2 ZOOPLANKTON

Composition

Sampling

Adaptations

Migrations

Distribution

Biomass and Abundance

Food and Feeding Relationships

10.3 FISHES

Composition

Sampling

Larvae, Juveniles, and Nursery Areas

Surf-Zone Fish Assemblages

Temporal Variability

Spatial Variability

Trophic Relationships

Human Impacts

10.4 OTHER GROUPS

10.5 CONCLUSIONS

11 - Other Marine and Terrestrial Vertebrates

11.1 INTRODUCTION

11.2 TURTLES

Nesting

Threats and Conservation

11.3 BIRDS

Seasonality and Migrations

Foraging

Nesting

Human Impacts

11.4 CONCLUSIONS

12 - Energetics and Nutrient Cycling

12.1 INTRODUCTION

12.2 FOOD SOURCES

12.3 MACROSCOPIC FOOD WEBS

Examples of Macroscopic Food Webs

India

Scotland

Western Australia

Western Cape, South Africa

California

Eastern Cape, South Africa

Uruguay

Food Web Dynamics and Trophic Niche Shifts

Variable Land-Derived Food Sources

Other Spatiotemporal Variations in Organic Inputs

12.4 INTERSTITIAL FOOD WEBS

Scotland and India

Western Cape

Eastern Cape

12.5 THE MICROBIAL LOOP IN SURF WATERS

12.6 ENERGY FLOW IN BEACH AND SURF-ZONE ECOSYSTEMS

12.7 CASE STUDY: SANDY BEACHES OF THE EASTERN CAPE

12.8 NUTRIENT CYCLING

12.9 CONCLUSIONS

13 - Coastal Dune Ecosystems and Dune–Beach Interactions

13.1 INTRODUCTION

13.2 THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT

13.3 COASTAL DUNE FORMATION BY VEGETATION

13.4 DUNE TYPES

13.5 EDAPHIC FEATURES

13.6 WATER

13.7 THE GRADIENT ACROSS COASTAL DUNEFIELDS

13.8 DUNE VEGETATION

13.9 THE FAUNA

13.10 FOOD WEBS

13.11 DUNE–BEACH EXCHANGES

13.12 CONCLUSIONS

14 - Fisheries

14.1 INTRODUCTION

14.2 FISHERY TYPES, RESOURCES, AND EXTRACTION PRACTICES

Fishery Types

Harvested Resources and Extraction Practices

Surf-Zone Fauna

Supralittoral and Intertidal Benthic Invertebrates

SUPRALITTORAL SPECIES

INTERTIDAL POLYCHAETES AND CRUSTACEANS

CLAMS

14.3 FISHERIES AS SOCIAL-ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS

System Structure

Main Components

Relevant Ecological Issues for Assessing and Managing the SES

Spatial Structure

Metapopulations

Density-Dependent and Environmental Factors

Ecological Effects of Fishing

External Drivers

14.4 HARVESTING PHASES AND LONG-TERM TRENDS

Harvesting Phases

Long-term Bioeconomic Trends

14.5 ASSESSMENT

Information Requirements for Monitoring Stock Condition

Fishery Performance Indicators

Main Concepts

Multiple Indicators in Practice

Assessing Trends in Reference Points

14.6 GOVERNANCE AND MANAGEMENT

Governance

Management

Single Species and the EAF

Operational Management Strategies

Spatially Explicit Strategies

Territorial Use Rights and Privileges

CASE STUDY: THE SURF CLAM IN CHILE

CASE STUDY: SHELLFISHES IN GALICIA, SPAIN

CASE STUDY: TERRITORIAL COMMUNAL RIGHTS IN THE RAZOR CLAM FISHERY, UNITED STATES

14.7 CONCLUSIONS

15 - Human Impacts

15.1 INTRODUCTION

15.2 RECREATION

Off-road Vehicles

Trampling and Related Recreational Activities

15.3 FOULING

Beach Cleaning

Eutrophication: Green and Golden Tides

15.4 POLLUTION

Crude Oil Pollution

Plastics and Microplastics

Sewage and Organic Enrichment

Heavy Metals

Effluents

15.5 BIOLOGICAL INVASIONS

15.6 NATURAL PERTURBATIONS

15.7 NOURISHMENT

15.8 MINING

15.9 COASTAL DEVELOPMENT, URBANIZATION, AND ENGINEERING

The Role of Human Pressure

Disrupting Sediment Transport

Impacts on Fauna

15.10 HUMAN INFLUENCE ON THE EVOLUTION OF BEACHES

15.11 IMPACT ASSESSMENTS

Assessment Approaches: Warnings and Perspectives

Indicators

The Triad Approach in Pollution Assessments

Toxicity Studies

A Multidimensional Framework for Impact Assessments

15.12 CONCLUSIONS

16 - Climate Change

16.1 INTRODUCTION

16.2 CLIMATE CHANGE: MAIN DRIVERS AND POTENTIAL EFFECTS ON THE SANDY-BEACH HABITAT

Ocean Warming

Sea-level Rise

Extreme Events and Winds

Acidification

16.3 CONCEPTUAL BASIS FOR TESTING CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACTS ON BEACHES

16.4 CLIMATE CHANGE AND SANDY-BEACH FAUNA

Life Histories and Differential Responses to Climate Change

Distribution, Range Shifts, Mass Mortalities, and Extirpations

Demography and Population Dynamics

Diseases

Community and Ecosystem Responses

Tipping Points and Regime Shifts

16.5 SOCIOECONOMIC EFFECTS AND MANAGEMENT

Managing Climate Change Effects

16.6 CASE STUDY: SANDY BEACHES IN THE SOUTHWEST ATLANTIC

Effects on the Environment

Effects on the Biota at Different Organizational Levels

16.7 CONCLUSIONS

17 - Management and Conservation

17.1 INTRODUCTION

17.2 THE FRAGILE LITTORAL ACTIVE ZONE

17.3 MANAGEMENT PRINCIPLES AND TOOLS

Manage the LAZ as a Unit

Identify the Basic Physical Processes and Scales Relevant to a Beach

Recognize the Basic Ecological Features of Beaches and Dunes

Protect the Foredunes as a Buffer

Employ Setbacks to Keep the LAZ Intact

Assess Shoreline Status and Erosion Risks

Determine Pollution, Health, and Safety Levels

Undertake Environmental Impact Assessments

Develop Management Plans

Objectives, Components, and Phases

Restoration, Rehabilitation, and Mitigation

Control Access and Estimate Carrying Capacity

Set Spatially Explicit Management Strategies for Multiple-Use Planning

Mesoscale Zoning

Macroscale Zoning: Beach Management Units and Protected Areas

Manage Sandy-Beach Services as SESs

Address Governance Structure and Processes

Identify Relevant External Drivers

17.4 DEALING WITH MULTIPLE MANAGEMENT OBJECTIVES

Core Management Approaches

Managing for Recreation, Conservation, and Multipurpose Use

Case Studies

Conservation: Sundays River Beach, South Africa

Intense Recreation: Bondi Beach, Sydney, Australia

Mixed-Use, High Conflict Potential: Mon Repos, Queensland, Australia

Mixed Use: Barra del Chuy, Uruguay

Limited Use: Maule, South Chile

Conservation and the Role of Protected Areas

Are Sandy-Beach Ecosystems at Risk?

17.5 CONCLUSIONS

17.6 EPILOGUE

Appendix: The Chemical Environment of Sediments

Glossary

References

Index

A

B

C

D

E

F

G

H

I

J

K

L

M

N

O

P

Q

R

S

T

U

V

W

X

Z

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