Chapter
1.2.1 Developing and developed cities
1.2.2 Multiple stresses and risk management
1.3 What urban decision-makers need to know about climate change
1.3.2 Science–policy linkages
1.3.4 Equity and environmental justice
1.3.5 Climate risks, adaptation and mitigation, and governance
1.4 Urban climate change issues covered in ARC3
1.4.1 Vulnerability and risk assessment
1.4.2 Urban climate hazards
1.4.3 Energy and buildings
1.4.4 Urban water supply and wastewater treatment
1.4.5 City transportation systems
1.4.6 Climate change and human health in cities
1.4.7 Urban land use and climate change
Part II: Defining the risk framework
2: Cities, disasters, and climate risk
2.2 Urban disasters and hazard dynamics in the context of climate change
2.3 Climate risk and key urban sector impacts
2.4 Climate change adaptation and disaster risk reduction: comparison, contrasts, and emerging synergies
2.5 Convergence of climate change adaptation and disaster risk reduction in the urban context
2.6 Climate risk in cities: assessing the nexus of disaster reduction and adaptation
2.7 Climate risk assessment in selected case studies
2.7.1 Buenos Aires, Argentina
2.7.1.1 Hazards and vulnerability
Spatial distribution of poor versus non-poor
Low elevation urban areas
2.7.1.2 Adaptive capacity: current and emerging issues
2.7.2.1 Hazards and vulnerability
2.7.2.2 Adaptive capacity: current and emerging issues
2.7.3.1 Hazards and vulnerability
2.7.3.2 Adaptive capacity: current and emerging issues
2.7.4 New York City, United States
2.7.4.1 Hazards and vulnerabilities
2.7.4.2 Adaptive capacity: current and emerging issues
2.8 Cities, disasters risk reduction and climate change adaptation: critical observations and conclusions
Annex 2.1 Global institutional structure for risk assessment and adaptation planning
3: Urban climate: Processes, trends, and projections
3.1.1 Effects of cities on temperature: urban heat islands
3.1.2 Effects of cities on local precipitation
3.1.3 Climate change impacts on the urban heat island processes
3.1.3.1 Shanghai: many urban environmental islands
3.2 Natural variability of the climate system
3.2.1 El Niño–Southern Oscillation
3.2.1.1 São Paulo and the El Niño–Southern Oscillation
3.2.2 Effects of the North Atlantic Oscillation on cities
3.2.2.1 London and the North Atlantic Oscillation
3.2.3 Other modes of natural climate variability
3.2.4 Natural variability and global climate change
3.3 Global climate change and its impact on urban areas
3.3.1 The climate system and global climate change
3.3.2 Drivers of global climate change
3.4 Observed climate change in cities
3.4.1.1 Tokyo’s heat island
3.4.1.2 Observed temperature trend in São Paulo, Brazil
3.4.2.1 Observed precipitation trend in Toronto, Canada
3.4.3.1 Observed sea level rise in Dakar, Senegal
3.4.4.1 Hot days in Melbourne, Australia
3.4.4.2 Drought in Harare, Zimbabwe
3.5 Future climate projections
3.5.1 Global climate change projection methods
3.5.1.1 Global climate models
3.5.1.2 Sources of uncertainty: emissions scenarios and climate sensitivity
3.5.1.3 Greenhouse gas emissions scenarios
3.5.1.4 Global climate model selection
3.5.1.5 Model-based probability
3.5.2 Temperature, precipitation, sea level rise, and extreme events climate projections
Temperature projections for Delhi, India
Precipitation projections for Athens, Greece
Extreme events projections for New York City
3.6 Conclusions and key research questions
4: Climate change and urban energy systems
4.2 The urban energy system: technology choices, market structure, and system governance
4.2.2 Energy market structure
4.2.3 Energy system governance
Tracking urban energy consumption
4.4 Climate risks to urban energy systems
4.4.1 Energy demand impacts of climate change
4.4.2 Energy supply chain and operations risks and vulnerabilities
4.4.2.1 Energy resource production and delivery
4.4.2.2 Impacts on power generation
4.4.2.3 Climate impacts on energy transmission and distribution
4.5 Efforts by cities to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and adapt local energy systems
4.5.1 Policy and program initiatives
4.5.1.1 Climate planning and governance efforts
4.5.1.2 Greenhouse gas mitigation policies and programs
4.5.1.3 Climate change adaptation policies and programs
4.6 Conclusions, policy recommendations, areas for future research
4.6.2 Where do cities go from here?
5: Climate change, water, and wastewater in cities
5.2 Description of sector
5.2.1 Formal water supply and wastewater sector
5.2.2 Informal urban water supply sector
5.2.3 Future urban growth and the informal water markets
5.3 Urban climate risks: vulnerabilities and impacts
5.3.2.3 Sea level rise and storm surges
5.3.2.4 Surface-water impacts
5.3.2.5 Degradation of groundwater aquifer systems used for urban supply
5.3.2.6 Regional-scale changes
5.3.2.7 Impacts on informal urban water systems
5.3.3 Interactions of climate change, urban water, and other sectors
5.4.1 Step 1: Conduct risk assessment inventories
5.4.2 Step 2: Apply future climate change scenarios
5.4.3 Step 3: Characterize adaptation options
5.4.3.1 Operations/management adaptations
5.4.3.2 Investments in infrastructure
5.4.3.3 Policy adaptations
5.4.4 Step 4: Conduct initial feasibility screening
5.4.5 Step 5: Link to capital and rehabilitation cycles
5.4.6 Step 6: Evaluate options – benefit/cost analysis, environmental impact, legal mandates
5.4.7 Step 7: Develop Climate Change Adaptation Action Plans, including timeframe for implementation
5.4.8 Step 8: Monitor and reassess
5.5.1 Water conservation/demand reductions
5.5.2 Water reclamation and recycling
5.5.3 Attention to energy efficiency of water supply expansion
5.5.4 Hydropower and reservoirs
5.5.5 Urban water heating
5.5.6 Watersheds and river basins
5.6 Policy considerations and knowledge gaps
5.6.1 Policy considerations
5.6.2 Gaps in needed understanding of urban water systems and climate change
6: Climate change and urban transportation systems
6.1.1 Description of urban transportation sector
6.1.2 Role of transportation in climate change
6.1.2.1 Contribution of transportation sector to greenhouse gas emissions
6.1.2.2 Impacts of climate change on transportation sector
6.1.3 Urban transportation and land use
6.1.4 Responding to climate change: adaptation and mitigation
6.2 Risk management as a framework for adaptation and mitigation
6.3 Assessing climate risks to urban transportation
6.3.1 Defining climate risks and methods of risk assessment
6.3.2 Climate hazards to urban transportation systems
6.3.3 Examples of climate change risk assessment of urban transport systems
6.4 Adaptation of urban transportation systems
6.4.1 Adaptation planning
6.4.2 Specific adaptation measures
6.4.3 Policy and economic considerations for adaptation
6.5 Mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions due to urban transportation
6.5.1 Mitigation strategies
6.5.2 Assessments of mitigation potential and cost
6.5.3 Constraints to mitigation in urban transportation systems: prospects for green technology diffusion
6.5.4 Mitigation policies
6.5.5 Financial tools and incentives
6.6 Key uncertainties, research needs, and information gaps
7: Climate change and human health in cities
7.1.1 Why health and climate change for cities?
7.1.2 Ways in which climate change will affect the health of city dwellers
7.1.3 The challenge for cities
7.2 Health-related findings of the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report
7.3 Urban health outcomes andtheir drivers
7.3.1 Heat and cold (temperature extremes)
7.3.2 Wind, storms, and floods
7.3.4 Water quantity and quality
7.3.7 Vector-borne, food-borne, and water-borne diseases
7.4 Climate change and urban health outcomes: modifying influences
7.4.1 Local geography and environmental conditions
7.4.2 Local infrastructure and urban planning
7.4.3 Social and economic conditions
7.4.3.1 Individual assets
7.4.3.2 Collective assets
7.4.3.3 Institutional factors
7.4.4 Density and demographics
7.4.5 Health system conditions
7.5.1 Reducing vulnerability to human health effects from climate change
7.5.1.1 Overview of general adaptation measures that reduce health risks
7.5.1.2 General adaptation measures for the health sector
7.5.2 Adaptation measures for specific health risks
7.5.2.1 High temperatures, heat waves, and the urban heat island
7.5.2.2 Food availability
7.5.2.3 Vector-borne diseases
7.5.2.4 Food-borne illnesses
7.5.2.5 Water-borne diseases
7.5.3 Extreme weather events
7.6 Policies and policy issues
7.6.1 Mitigation policies that benefit health
7.6.2 Adaptation policies that benefit health
7.6.3 Combining mitigation, adaptation, and health strategies
7.6.4 Coordinated action on climate change adaptation and health
7.7 Research and data needs
Part IV: Cross-cutting issues
8: The role of urban land in climate change
8.1.1 Defining urban land
8.1.2 Cities: their natural setting, urban form, and built environment
8.1.3 Market and public good aspects of land
8.1.4 Urban land and infrastructure
8.2 Urban form, patterns, and impacts
8.2.2 Environmental impacts of urbanization
8.2.2.1 Built environment and its effect on local climate
8.2.3 Slums and vulnerable populations
8.3 The urban land management system
8.3.1 The legal/political framework
8.3.2 The urban planning system, its history and institutions
8.3.3 Types of plans and their limitations
8.3.3.1 Metropolitanization requires metropolitan planning
8.3.4 Urban land regulation
8.3.5 Development markets and their influence on urban growth
8.3.6 Fiscal aspects of urban land: property taxes and city budgets
8.3.7 Relation to urban infrastructure systems
8.5 How urban planning can address the mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions
8.5.1 What cities are currently doing
8.6 How urban planning can address the impacts of climate change
8.6.1 What cities are currently doing
Planning and land markets
8.8.1 Forecasting urban growth
8.8.2 Urban growth policy research
8.8.3 Standard measurement of climate change data at the city scale
9: Cities and climate change: The challenges for governance
9.2 Cities and climate change: six core governance challenges
9.2.1 Empowered local governance: political and fiscal
9.2.2 Jurisdictional boundaries: towards a metropolitan governance of climate change
9.2.3 Good planning and effective urban management
9.2.4 The challenge of data and measurement: evidence-based policy formulation and monitoring
9.2.5 Addressing deeper and enduring risks and long-term vulnerabilities in cities
9.2.6 The challenge of inclusive governance
Conclusion: Moving forward
Scientists and stakeholders: Key partners in urban climate change mitigation and adaptation
Appendix A: City case studies and topics in vulnerability, adaptation and mitigation
Appendix B: Acronyms and Abbreviations
Appendix C: UCCRN Steering Group, ARC3 authors, and reviewers
Coordinating lead authors and lead authors
Climate Change and Cities
：First Assessment Report of the Urban Climate Change Research Network
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