Cover

Half-title

Title

Copyright

Contents

Preface

1 Introduction

1.1 Radiometry

1.2 Detector types

1.3 Performance characteristics

1.3.1 Quantum efficiency

1.3.2 Noise and signal to noise

1.3.3 Imaging properties

1.3.5 Frequency response

1.4 Solid state physics

1.5 Superconductors

1.6 Examples

1.6.1 Radiometry

1.6.2 Modulation transfer function

1.7 Problems

Notes

Further reading

2 Intrinsic photoconductors

2.1 Basic operation

2.2 Limitations and optimization

2.2.1 Spectral response

2.2.2 Number of pixels

2.2.3 Responsivity

2.2.4 Frequency response

2.2.5 Noise

2.2.6 Thermal excitation

2.3 Performance specification

2.4 Example: design of a photoconductor

2.5 Problems

Notes

Further reading

3 Extrinsic photoconductors

3.1 Basics

3.1.1 Operation

3.1.2 Construction

3.2 Limitations

3.2.1 Frequency response

3.2.2 Noise

3.2.3 Thermal excitation

3.2.4 Compensation

3.2.5 Ionizing radiation effects

3.2.6 Nonideal behavior

3.2.6.1 Transient and nonequilibrium response

3.2.6.2 Spiking

3.2.6.3 Background dependence

3.3 Variants

3.3.1 Stressed detectors

3.3.2 Blocked impurity band (BIB) detectors

3.3.3 Solid state photomultiplier

3.4 Problems

Note

Further reading

4 Photodiodes and other junction-based detectors

4.1 Basic operation

4.2 Quantitative description

4.2.1 Diffusion

4.2.2 Quantum efficiency

4.2.3 Current and impedance

4.2.4 Response

4.2.5 Capacitance

4.3 Photodiode variations

4.3.1 PIN diode

4.3.2 Avalanche diode

4.3.3 Schottky diode

4.4 Quantum well detectors

4.5 Superconducting tunnel junctions (STJs)

4.6 Example

4.7 Problems

Further reading

5 Amplifiers and readouts

5.1 Building blocks

5.2 Load resistor and amplifier

5.3 Transimpedance amplifier (TIA)

5.3.1 Basic operation

5.3.2 Time dependencies and frequency response

5.4 Integrating amplifiers

5.4.1 Simple integrators

5.4.2 Capacitive transimpedance amplifier (CTIA)

5.4.3 Readout approaches

5.4.4 Minimizing electronic noise

5.4.5 Overall readout strategies

5.5 Performance measurement

5.6 Examples

5.6.1 Readout performance

5.6.2 Performance measurement

5.7 Problems

Further reading

6 Arrays

6.1 Overview

6.2 Infrared arrays

6.3 Charge coupled devices (CCDs)

6.3.1 Operation of a single pixel

6.3.2 Readout of the MOS capacitor by charge injection

6.3.3 Charge coupled readouts

6.3.3.1 Basic operation

6.3.3.2 Charge transfer efficiency

6.3.3.3 Noise

6.3.3.4 Buried channel

6.3.3.5 Frontside pinning

6.3.3.6 Charge transfer architectures

6.3.3.7 Output amplifier

6.3.3.8 Performance

6.4 CMOS imaging arrays

6.5 Direct hybrid PIN diode arrays

6.6 Array properties

6.6.1 Fixed-pattern noise

6.6.2 Fringing

6.6.3 Pixelization

6.6.4 Crosstalk and MTF

6.7 Example

6.8 Problems

Notes

Further reading

7 Photoemissive detectors

7.1 General description

7.2 Photocathode behavior and photon detection limits

7.3 Practical detectors

7.3.1 Photomultiplier tube (PMT)

7.3.2 Microchannels

7.3.3 Image intensifiers

(a) Photographic plates

(b) Electronic readout of phosphor-based image tubes

(c) Electronographic tube

(d) Direct electronic readouts

7.4 Vacuum tube television-type imaging detectors

7.5 Example

7.6 Problems

Further reading

8 Photography

8.1 Basic operation

8.2 Underlying processes

8.2.1 Photon absorption and quantum efficiency

8.2.2 Image creation and detective quantum efficiency

8.2.3 Spectral response

8.2.4 Color photography

8.3 Characteristic curve

8.4 Performance

8.4.1 Speed

8.4.2 Contrast, and signal to noise

8.4.3 Calibration

8.4.4 Resolution

8.5 Example

8.6 Problems

Further reading

9 Bolometers and other thermal detectors

9.1 Basic operation

9.2 Detailed theory of semiconductor bolometers

9.2.1 Electrical properties

9.2.2 Time response

9.2.3 Responsivity

9.2.4 Noise and noise equivalent power (NEP)

9.3 Superconducting bolometers

9.3.1 Temperature sensing

9.3.2 SQUID readouts

9.4 Bolometer construction and operation

9.4.1 Heat capacity

9.4.2 Thermal conductance

9.4.3 Other properties

9.4.4 Quantum efficiency

9.4.5 Etched bolometers

9.5 Other thermal detectors

9.5.1 Hot electron bolometers

9.5.2 Liquid-nitrogen-temperature bolometers

9.5.3 Room-temperature thermal detectors

9.5.4 Micromachined bolometer arrays

9.6 Operating temperature

9.7 Example: design of a bolometer

9.8 Problems

Note

Further reading

10 Visible and infrared coherent receivers

10.1 Basic operation

10.2 Visible and infrared heterodyne

10.2.1 Mixer

10.2.2 Post-mixer electronics

10.2.2.1 IF amplifier

10.2.2.2 Detector stage

10.2.3 Local oscillator

10.3 Performance attributes of heterodyne receivers

10.3.1 Bandwidth

10.3.2 Time response

10.3.3 Throughput

10.3.4 Spatial arrays

10.3.5 Signal to noise and fundamental detection limits

10.3.6 Noise temperature

10.4 Test procedures

10.5 Examples

10.5.1 Receiver performance

10.5.2 Performance comparison

10.6 Problems

Notes

Further reading

11 Submillimeter-and millimeter-wave heterodyne receivers

11.1 Basic operation

11.2 Mixers

11.2.1 Diode mixers

11.2.2 Superconductor–insulator–superconductor (SIS) mixers

11.2.3 Other quasiparticle tunneling mixers

11.2.4 Josephson junctions

11.2.5 Hot electron bolometers

11.3 Performance characteristics

11.3.1 Noise limits

11.3.2 Summary of achieved noise temperatures

11.4 Local oscillators

11.4.1 Gunn oscillator

11.4.2 Frequency multiplication

11.4.3 Other local oscillators

11.5 Problems

Notes

Further reading

12 Summary

12.1 Quantum efficiency and noise

12.2 Linearity and dynamic range

12.3 Number of pixels

12.4 Time response

12.5 Spectral response and bandwidth

12.6 Practical considerations

12.7 Overview

12.8 Problems

Note

Further reading

Appendix A Physical constants

Appendix B Answers to selected problems

References

Chapter 1

Chapter 2

Chapter 3

Chapter 4

Chapter 5

Chapter 6

Chapter 7

Chapter 8

Chapter 9

Chapter 10

Chapter 11

Chapter 12

Index