Chapter
3.3 Climate change during the Cretaceous
3.3.1 Early and mid-Cretaceous
3.4 Implications for angiosperm diversification
4 Stratigraphic framework and key areas for Cretaceous angiosperms
4.1 The stratigraphic framework
4.2 Key areas for Cretaceous angiosperms
4.3.1 Portugal: Early Cretaceous localities
4.3.2 Portugal, Late Cretaceous localities
4.3.9 Other parts of Europe
4.4 Eastern North America
4.4.2 Maryland and Washington, D.C.
4.5 Western interior of the United States and Canada
4.5.1 Kansas and Nebraska
4.5.3 Colorado, Montana, North and South Dakota and New Mexico
4.5.4 Alberta and British Columbia, Canada
4.8 Israel, Jordan and Lebanon
4.10 West Africa and Brazil
4.11.3 Siberia, Northeastern Russia and the Far East of Russia
4.12 Southern Gondwana and India
4.12.7 Southern South America
5 Angiosperms in context: extant and fossil seed plants
5.1 Angiosperms among extant and fossil seed plants
5.2 Bennettitales-Erdtmanithecales-Gnetales (BEG) group
5.3.1 Temporal and spatial patterns of gnetalean radiation
5.3.3 Gnetalean mesofossils and macrofossils
5.5 Unassigned dispersed seeds of the BEG group
5.6 Bennettitales (Cycadeoidales)
5.6.1 Permineralised material
5.6.2 Compression material
5.8 Other Palaeozoic and Mesozoic seed plants
5.8.1 Corystospermales and potentially related plants
6
Origin and age of angiosperms
6.1 Hypotheses of seed plant relationships
6.1.1 Cladistic hypotheses based on morphology
6.1.2 Cladistic hypotheses based on molecular data
6.1.3 Current status of phylogenetic studies
6.2 Origin of angiosperm structure
6.2.1 The angiosperm flower
6.2.2 The angiosperm stamen
6.2.3 The angiosperm ovule
6.2.4 The angiosperm carpel
6.2.5 Vegetative structure of angiosperms
6.3 The age of angiosperms
6.3.1 Implications of hypotheses of relationships
6.3.2 Age estimates of angiosperms based on molecular data
6.3.3 Angiosperm age based on palaeobotanical data
6.4 Pre-Cretaceous angiosperm-like fossils
7 Phylogenetic framework and the assignment of fossils to extant groups
7.1 Early ideas on angiosperm phylogeny
7.2 Phylogenetic studies of angiosperms based on molecular data
7.3 Angiosperm phylogeny group classification (APGIII)
7.3.1 ANITA grade, Chloranthaceae and Ceratophyllaceae
7.4 Angiosperm phylogeny: future directions
7.5 Assignment of fossils to extant groups
8 Fossils near the base of the angiosperm tree
8.1 Early-diverging angiosperm lineages at the ANITA grade
8.1.1 Fossils of uncertain relationships at the ANITA grade
8.3.2 Cabombaceae and Nymphaeaceae
8.4.2 Schisandraceae (including Illiciaceae)
8.5.2 Hedyosmum-like flowers
9 Early fossil angiosperms of uncertain relationships
9.1.2 Lappacarpus, Ievlevia, Donlesia and Beipiaoa
9.1.3 Other isolated seeds of uncertain affinity
9.2 Fossil flowers attached to inflorescences and stems
9.2.2 Xingxueina and Caspiocarpus
9.2.3 The Koonwarra fossil
9.2.4 Myricanthium, Zlatkocarpus and other inflorescences from the Peruc flora
9.2.5 Inflorescences from the Dakota Formation
9.2.6 Other inflorescences
9.3 Isolated flowers and fruits preserved as compressions/impressions
9.3.1 Lesqueria elocata and other isolated reproductive structures
9.4 Permineralised flowers
9.5 Isolated angiosperm mesofossils
9.5.2 Isolated fruits and seeds
9.6 Dispersed monoaperturate pollen
9.6.1 Afropollis and Schrankipollis
9.6.2 Asteropollis and Clavatipollenites
9.6.3 Retimonocolpites, Brenneripollis and Pennipollis
9.6.4 Liliacidites and Similipollis
9.6.6 Transitoripollis and Tucanopollis
9.7 Fossil leaves of uncertain relationships
10
Early fossils of eumagnoliids
10.1 Classification of eumagnoliids
10.1.1 Fossil eumagnoliids of uncertain relationships
10.2.1 Fossil Magnoliales of uncertain relationships
10.3.1 Fossil Laurales of uncertain relationships
10.3.2 Atherospermataceae
10.5.1 Fossil Piperales of uncertain relationships
11.1 Classification of monocots
11.2 Fossil evidence of monocot diversification
11.3 Putative early monocot fossils
11.3.3 Reproductive structures
11.5.1 Putative fossil Alismatales
11.5.4 Butomaceae and Hydrocharitaceae
11.9.1 Amaryllidaceae and Asparagaceae
12 Fossils of eudicots: early-diverging groups
12.1 Classification of eudicots
12.2 Early-diverging eudicots
12.3 Fossil evidence of eudicot diversification
12.4 Fossils of uncertain relationships
12.4.1 Early tricolpate pollen in dispersed palynofloras
12.4.2 Early tricolpate pollen in situ in reproductive structures
12.4.3 Fossil reproductive structures of probable eudicot relationships
13
Fossils of core eudicots: basal lineages
13.1 Classification of core eudicots
13.2 Early fossil evidence of core eudicots
13.8.1 Unassigned Saxifragales
13.8.5 Haloragaceae and Crassulaceae
13.8.6 Iteaceae and Pterostemonaceae
14 Fossils of core eudicots: rosids
14.1 Classification of rosids
14.2 Fossil evidence of rosids
14.6 The nitrogen-fixing clade
14.6.5 Fossil Fagales of uncertain relationships
14.6.6 Normapolles complex
14.6.7 Nothofagaceae and Fagaceae
14.6.8 Ticodendraceae, Betulaceae and Casuarinaceae
14.6.9 Myricaceae, Rhoipteleaceae and Juglandaceae
14.7 Malvids (Eurosids II)
14.7.3 Crossosomatales and Picramniales
15 Early fossils of eudicots: asterids
15.1 Classification of asterids
15.1.1 Asterid fossils of uncertain relationships
15.2.1 Fossil Cornales of uncertain relationships
15.3.1 Ericalean fossils of uncertain relationships
15.3.2 Pentaphylacaceae and Theaceae
15.3.3 Core Ericales: Clethraceae, Cyrillaceae and Ericaceae
15.3.4 Core Ericales: Sarraceniaceae, Actinidiaceae and Roridulaceae
15.3.5 Ebenaceae and primuloids
15.3.6 Symplocaceae, Diapensiaceae and Styracaceae
15.4 Lamiids (Euasterids I)
15.4.1 Lamiid fossils of uncertain relationships
15.5 Boraginaceae, Icacinaceae and Vahliaceae
15.8 Solanales and Lamiales
15.9 Campanulids (Euasterids II)
15.9.1 Campanulid fossils of uncertain relationships
15.10 Aquifoliales, Escalloniales and Asterales
15.11 Bruniales, Apiales, Paracryphiales and Dipsacales
16
Patterns of structural diversification in angiosperm reproductive organs
16.1 Inflorescence structure
16.2.2 Receptacle, floral phyllotaxis and merism
16.2.3 Position of floral organs
16.3 Other aspects of floral construction
16.3.2 Protection in floral bud
16.3.3 Synorganisation of floral parts
17 History and evolution of pollination in angiosperms
17.1 Pollination in extant non-angiosperm seed plants
17.1.1 Pollination in Ginkgo and cycads
17.1.2 Pollination in conifers
17.1.3 Pollination in Gnetales
17.2 Pollination in extant angiosperms
17.2.1 Abiotic versus biotic pollination in early angiosperms
17.2.2 Abiotic pollination
17.2.3 Biotic pollination
17.3 Insects as pollinators
17.3.1 Thrip pollination and the fossil history of Thysanoptera
17.3.2 Beetle pollination and the fossil history of Coleoptera
17.3.3 Bee/wasp pollination and the fossil history of Hymenoptera
17.3.4 Fly pollination and the fossil history of Diptera
17.3.5 Butterfly/moth pollination and the fossil history of Lepidoptera
17.4 Vertebrates as pollinators
17.4.1 Bird pollination and the fossil history of birds
17.4.2 Mammal pollination and the fossil history of mammals
17.5 History of pollination in angiosperms
17.5.1 Pollination in pre-angiosperm vegetation
17.5.2 Pollination in Early Cretaceous angiosperms
17.5.3 Pollination in mid-Cretaceous angiosperms
17.5.4 Pollination in Late Cretaceous angiosperms
17.5.5 Pollination in Cenozoic angiosperms
17.6 Large-scale trends in the history of angiosperm pollination
18 History and evolution of dispersal in angiosperms
18.1 Dispersal in extant non-angiosperm seed plants
18.1.1 Dispersal in cycads
18.1.2 Dispersal in Ginkgo
18.1.3 Dispersal in conifers
18.1.4 Dispersal in Gnetales
18.2 Dispersal in extant angiosperms
18.4 History of dispersal in angiosperms
18.4.1 Dispersal in pre-angiosperm vegetation
18.4.2 Dispersal in Early Cretaceous angiosperms
18.4.3 Dispersal in mid-Cretaceous angiosperms
18.4.4 Dispersal in Late Cretaceous angiosperms
18.4.5 Dispersal in Cenozoic angiosperms
18.5 Large-scale trends in the history of angiosperm dispersal
19 Vegetational context of early angiosperm diversification
19.1 Transition to angiosperm-dominated vegetation
19.2 Components of Early Cretaceous vegetation
19.2.1 Free-sporing plants
19.2.2 Bennettitales and Cycadales
19.2.3 Gnetales, Erdtmanithecales and Elaterates
19.2.6 Ginkgoales and Czekanowskiales
19.3 Vegetation during the early diversification of angiosperms
19.4 Early angiosperms: diversity in obscurity
19.5 Mid-Cretaceous vegetation
19.6 Late Cretaceous vegetation and floristic provinces
20 The accumulation of angiosperm diversity
20.1 Large-scale patterns in angiosperm diversification
20.2 Patterns of angiosperm diversification: early lineages
20.3 Patterns of angiosperm diversification: eumagnoliids
20.3.1 Canellales-Piperales
20.4 Patterns of angiosperm diversification: monocots
20.5 Patterns of angiosperm diversification: eudicots
20.6 Angiosperm evolution and global change through the Cenozoic
20.6.1 Angiosperm evolution and the Cretaceous-Palaeogene (K-T) extinction
20.6.2 Palaeogene vegetation
20.6.3 Neogene vegetation and the origin of modern biomes
Early Flowers and Angiosperm Evolution
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