Cover

Half Title

Title Page

Copyright

Dedication

Contents

Preface

1 Introduction

1.1. Historical overview

1.2. Types of lightning discharge and lightning terminology

1.3. Summary of salient lightning properties

1.4. The global electric circuit

1.5. Regarding the utilization of lightning energy

1.6. Summary

References and bibliography

2 Incidence of lightning

2.1. Introduction

2.2. Characterization of individual storms and storm systems

2.3. Thunderstorm days

2.4. Thunderstorm hours

2.5. Lightning flash density

2.6. Long-term variations in lightning incidence

2.7. Ratio of cloud flashes to cloud-to-ground flashes

2.8. Characteristics of lightning as a function of season, location, and storm type

2.9. Lightning incidence to various objects

2.10. Summary

References and bibliography

3 Electrical structure of lightning-producing clouds

3.1. Introduction

3.2. Cumulonimbus

3.3. Non-cumulonimbus

3.4. Summary

References and bibliography

4 Downward negative lightning discharges to ground

4.1. Introduction

4.2. General picture

4.3. Initial breakdown

4.4. Stepped leader

4.5. Attachment process

4.6. Return stroke

4.7. Subsequent leader

4.8. Continuing current

4.9. M-component

4.10. J-and K-processes

4.11. Regular pulse bursts

4.12. Summary

References and bibliography

5 Positive and bipolar lightning discharges to ground

5.1. Introduction

5.2. Conditions conducive to the occurrence of positive lightning

5.3. Characterization of positive lightning

5.4. Bipolar lightning discharges to ground

5.5. Summary

References and bibliography

6 Upward lightning initiated by ground-based objects

6.1. Introduction

6.2. General characterization

6.3. Overall electrical characteristics

6.4. Impulsive currents

6.5. Lightning current reflections within tall objects

6.6. Electromagnetic fields due to lightning strikes to tall objects

6.7. Acoustic output

6.8. Summary

References and bibliography

7 Artificial initiation (triggering) of lightning by ground-based activity

7.1. Introduction

7.2. Rocket-triggered lightning

7.3. Other lightning triggering techniques

7.4. Concluding remarks

References and bibliography

8 Winter lightning in Japan

8.1. Introduction

8.2. Formation of winter thunderclouds

8.3. Evolution of winter thunderclouds

8.4. Characteristics of natural winter lightning

8.5. Rocket-triggered lightning in winter

8.6. Summary

References and bibliography

9 Cloud discharges

9.1. Introduction

9.2. General information

9.3. Phenomenology inferred from VHF–UHF imaging

9.4. Early (active) stage

9.5. Late (final) stage

9.6. Comparison with ground discharges

9.7. Summary

References and bibliography

10 Lightning and airborne vehicles

10.1. Introduction

10.2. Statistics on lightning strikes to aircraft

10.3. Major airborne research programs

10.4. Mechanisms of lightning–aircraft interaction

10.5. Lightning test standards

10.6. Accidents

10.7. Summary

References and bibliography

11 Thunder

11.1. Introduction

11.2. Observations

11.3. Generation mechanisms

11.4. Propagation

11.5. Acoustic imaging of lightning channels

11.6. Summary

References and bibliography

12 Modeling of lightning processes

12.1. Introduction

12.2. Return stroke

12.3. Dart leader

12.4. Stepped leader

12.5. M-component

12.6. Other processes

12.7. Summary

References and bibliography

13 The distant lightning electromagnetic environment: atmospherics, Schumann resonances, and whistlers

13.1. Introduction

13.2. Theoretical background

13.3. Atmospherics (sferics)

13.4. Schumann resonances

13.5. Whistlers

13.6. Radio noise

13.7. Summary

References and bibliography

14 Lightning effects in the middle and upper atmosphere

14.1. Introduction

14.2. Upward lightning channels from cloud tops

14.3. Low-luminosity transient discharges in the mesosphere

14.4. Elves: low-luminosity transient phenomena in the lower ionosphere

14.5. Runaway electrons, X-rays, and gamma-rays

14.6. Interaction of lightning and thundercloud electric fields with the ionosphere and the magnetosphere

14.7. Summary

References and bibliography

15 Lightning effects on the chemistry of the atmosphere

15.1. Introduction

15.2. Mechanism of NO production by return-stroke channels

15.3. Laboratory determination of NO yield per unit energy

15.4. Ground-based field determination of NO yield per lightning flash

15.5. Estimation of global NO production using the flash extrapolation approach (FEA)

15.6. Estimation of NO production from airborne measurements

15.7. Estimation of NO production from extrapolation of nuclear explosion data

15.8. Transport of lightning-produced trace gases

15.9. Production of trace gases in the primitive Earth atmosphere and in the atmospheres of other planets

15.10. Summary

References and bibliography

16 Extraterrestrial lightning

16.1. Introduction

16.2. Detection techniques

16.3. Venus

16.4. Jupiter

16.5. Saturn

16.6. Uranus

16.7. Neptune

16.8. Concluding remarks

References and bibliography

17 Lightning locating systems

17.1. Introduction

17.2. Electric and magnetic field amplitude techniques

17.3. Magnetic field direction finding

17.4. Time-of-arrival technique

17.5. The US National Lightning Detection Network

17.6. Interferometry

17.7. Ground-based optical direction finding

17.8. Detection from satellites

17.9. Radar

17.10. Summary

References and bibliography

18 Deleterious effects of lightning and protective techniques

18.1. Introduction

18.2. Basic mechanisms of lightning damage

18.3. Protection

18.4. Lightning interaction with specific objects and systems

18.5. Lightning test standards

18.6. Summary

References and bibliography

19 Lightning hazards to humans and animals

19.1. Statistics

19.2. Electrical aspects

19.3. Medical aspects

19.4. Personal safety

19.5. Summary

References and bibliography

20 Ball lightning, bead lightning, and other unusual discharges

20.1. Introduction

20.2. Witness reports of ball lightning

20.3. Ball lightning statistics

20.4. Ball lightning theories

20.5. Laboratory simulation of ball lightning

20.6. Bead lightning

20.7. Other types of unusual lightning and lightning-like discharges

20.8. Concluding comments

References and bibliography

Appendix: books on lightning and related subjects

Index