Chapter
3 Discrepancy-Reducing Feedback Processes in Behavior
Feedback Control in Human Behavior
Early Applications of Feedback Principles
Self-Directed Attention and Comparison with Standards
Self-Directed Attention and Conformity to Standards
Brain Functioning, Self-Awareness, and Self-Regulation
Broadening the Application of Feedback Principles
Sources and Nature of Feedback of the Effects of One's Behavior
Use of Feedback for Self-Verification
Social Comparison and Feedback Control
4 Discrepancy-Enlarging Loops, and Three Further Issues
Discrepancy-Enlarging Feedback Loops in Behavior
Downward Social Comparison
Negative Reference Groups
Feared Self and Unwanted Self
Positive Feedback Process Constrained by Negative Feedback Process
Feedback Loops in Mutual Interdependence
The Search for Discrepancies
An Overview of Broad Goal Constructs
Hierarchical Conceptions of Goals
Basic Premise: Goals Can Be Differentiated by Levels of Abstraction
Hierarchical Functioning Is Simultaneous
Comparisons Outside Personality-Social Psychology
Hierarchical Models of Motor Control
Comparisons from Personality-Social Psychology
Relations to Goal Models Outlined Earlier
Hierarchicality behind Task Efforts
Hierarchicality in Other Models
6 Goals, Hierarchicality, and Behavior: Further Issues
Challenges to Hierarchicality
Hierarchies, Heterarchies, and Coalitions
Are the Qualities of the Proposed Hierarchy the Wrong Sorts?
Responsibility for Details
Further Issues Regarding Hierarchical Functioning
Which Level Is Functionally Superordinate Can Vary
Multiple Paths to High-Level Goals, Multiple Meanings in Concrete Action
Approach Goals and Avoidance Goals within a Hierarchy
Approach and Avoidance Goals and Weil-Being
Multiple Simultaneous Goals
Multiple Goals Satisfied in One Activity
Programs Seem Different from Other Goals
Analog versus Digital Functioning
Opportunistic Planning and Stages in Decision Making
Goal Hierarchies and Traits
Viewing Others in Terms of Traits versus Actions
Traits and Behaviors in Memory
Self-Determination Theory and the Self
7 Public and Private Aspects of the Self
Aspects of Self and Classes of Goal
Behavioral Self-Regulation and Private versus Social Goals
Differential Valuation of Personal and Social Goals
Self-Consciousness and Self-Awareness in Self-Regulation
Attitudes, Subjective Norms, and Behavior
Private Preferences and Subjective Norms Vary in Their Content
8 Control Processes and Affect
Goals, Rate of Progress, and Affect
Discrepancy Reduction and Rate of Reduction
Progress Toward a Goal versus Completion of Subgoals
Evidence on the Affective Consequences of Progress
Lawrence, Carver, and Scheier
Is This Really a Feedback System?
Does Positive Affect Lead to Coasting?
A Cruise-Control Model of Affect
Changes in Rate: Acceleration and Deceleration
Subjective Experience of Acceleration and Deceleration
Affect from Discrepancy-Enlarging Loops
Activation Asymmetry between Dimensions
Affect in the Absence of Action
Affect from Recollection or Imagination
Potential for Affect and Levels of Abstraction
Merging Affect and Action
Two Systems in Concert: Other Applications
9 Affect: Issues and Comparisons
Meta-Level Standards Vary in Stringency
Changing Meta-Level Standards
Stress as the Disruption of Goal-Directed Activity
Goal Attainment and Negative Affect
Conflict and Mixed Feelings
Time Windows for Input to Meta-Monitoring Can Vary
Are There Other Mechanisms That Produce Affect?
Relationships to Other Theories
Affect and Reprioritization
Positive and Negative Affect
Biological Models of Bases of Affect
10 Expectancies and Disengagement
Affect Is Linked to Expectancy
Confidence and Brain Function
Interruption and Further Assessment
Assessment of Expectancies
Generality and Specificity of Expectancies
Effort versus Disengagement
Research: Comparisons with Standards
Research: Responses to Fear
Mental Disengagement, Impaired Task Performance, and Negative Rumination
Self-Focus, Task Focus, and Rumination
Effort and Disengagement: The Great Divide
Is Disengagement Good or Bad?
11 Disengagement: Issues and Comparisons
Scaling Back Goals as Limited Disengagement
Problems with Limited Disengagement
Scaling Back Goals as Changing Velocity Reference Value
When Giving Up Is Not a Tenable Option
Hierarchicality and Importance Can Impede Disengagement
Inability to Disengage and Responses to Health Threats
Watersheds, Disjunctions, and Bifurcations among Responses
Other Disjunctive Motivational Models
Does Disengagement Imply an Override Mechanism?
Disengagement, or Competing Motives?
Further Theoretical Comparisons
Efficacy Expectancy and Expectancy of Success
The Sense of Personal Control
Engagement and Disengagement in Other Literatures
Upward and Downward Social Comparison
Performance Goals and Learning Goals
12 Applications to Problems in Living
Regulating with the Wrong Feedback
Automatic Distortion of Feedback
Goals Operating out of Awareness
Doubt as a Root of Problems
Automatic Use of Previously Encoded Success Expectancies
Premature Disengagement of Effort
Failure to Disengage Completely When Doing So Is the Right Response
"Hanging On" Is Related to Distress
When Is Disengagement the Right Response?
Rumination as Problem Solving and Attempted Discrepancy Reduction
Rumination as Dysfunctional
13 Hierarchicality and Problems in Living
Links between Concrete Goals and the Core Values of the Self
Hierarchicality as an Impediment to Disengagement
Problems as Conflicts among Goals
Problems as Absence of Links from High to Low Levels
Reorganization of the Self
Making Low Levels Functionally Superordinate
Reduction of High-Level Control by Deindividuation and Alcohol
Relinquishing or Abandoning High-Level Control as Escape from the Self
Relinquishing or Abandoning High-Level Control as Problem Solving
Failure of High-Level Override: Symmetry in Application
Residing Too Much at High Levels
14 Chaos and Dynamic Systems
Sensitive Dependence on Initial Conditions
Phase Space, Attractors, and Repellers
Another Way of Picturing Attractors
Variability and Phase Changes
Simple Applications of Dynamic Systems Thinking
Shifts among Attractors and Motivational Dynamics
Variability in the Construing of Social Behavior
Variability and Consciousness
Consciousness, Attractors, and Importance in Day-to-Day Life
Chaotic Variation as Frequency Distributions
Variability of Behavior in Iterative Systems
Sensitive Dependence on Initial Conditions
Catastrophes in Physical Reality
Applications of Catastrophe Theory
Relationship Formation and Dissolution
Persuasion and Belief Perseverance
Effort versus Disengagement
Importance or Investment as a Critical Control Parameter
16 Further Applications to Problems in Living
Catastrophes and Psychological Problems
Further Possible Manifestations of the Cusp Catastrophe
Dynamic Systems and the Change Process
Attractors, Minima, Stability, and Optimality
Stability, Adaptation, and Optimality
Minima in Specific Problems
Destabilization and the Metaphors of Dynamic Systems
Destabilization, Reorganization, and Beneficial Effects of Trauma
17 Is Behavior Controlled or Does It Emerge?
Coordination and Complexity Emergent from Simple Sources
Some Apparent Complexity Need Not Be Created
Properties Emergent from Social Interaction
Does Emergence of Some Imply Emergence of All?
Two Modes of Functioning?
Need Everything Be Distributed?
Planning and Goal-Relevant Decisions
Two-Mode Models in Personality-Social Psychology
Cognitive-Experiential Self-Theory
Deliberative and Implemental Mindsets
Comparisons among Theories
Autonomous Artificial Agents
Complexity and Coordination
Another View of Goals in Autonomous Agents
Comparison with Two-Mode Models of Thinking
18 Goal Engagement, Life, and Death
Goal Engagement and Weil-Being
Doubt, Disengagement, and Self-Destructive Behavior
Disengagement and Passive Death
Disengagement, Disease, and Death
Disengagement and Disease Vulnerability
Doubt, Disengagement, and Adverse Responses to Disease
Disengagement, Recurrence, Disease Progression, and Death
Aging and the Reduction of Importance
On the Self-Regulation of Behavior
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