Chapter
1.2.2 Biodegradable polymer blends
1.3 Properties of scaffold materials
1.3.2 Physical properties
1.3.3 Mechanical properties
1.3.4 Degradation properties
1.4 Mechanical properties of scaffold
1.5 Biological properties of scaffold
1.5.1 Cell behavior on scaffold
1.5.2 Cytocompatibility evaluation
1.6 Conclusions and future directions
2 Instructive proteins for tissue regeneration
2.1 Proteins for tissue engineering
2.2.1 Chemical structure and typologies
2.3.1 Structure and properties
2.3.2 Extraction and purification methods
2.3.3 Applications in tissue engineering
2.4.1 Structure and properties
2.4.2 Processing strategies for tissue engineering
2.4.3 Chemical functionalization, composites, and doping
2.4.4 Applications in tissue engineering
2.5 Conclusions and perspectives
3 Bioinspired scaffolds for bone and neural tissue and interface engineering
3.1 Introduction: Synthetic or natural polymers?
3.2 Basic criteria for material selection in tissue engineering
3.3 Applications in tissue engineering
3.3.3.2 Neural engineering
4 Melt-molding technologies for 3D scaffold engineering
4.1.1 Pore generation in melt-molding technologies
4.2 Compression molding technologies
4.2.1 Compression molding/particulate leaching
4.2.2 Compression molding/phase separation
4.2.3 Modified compression molding techniques
4.2.3.1 Compression molding/solvent casting/particulate leaching
4.2.3.2 Wire-network molding
4.3 Injection molding technologies
4.3.1 Injection molding/particulate leaching
4.3.2 Injection molding/phase separation
4.3.3 Injection molding/gas foaming
4.3.3.1 Microcellular foam injection molding
4.3.4 Modified injection molding techniques
4.3.4.1 Injection molding/three-dimensional printing
4.3.4.2 Injection molding/gelatin crosslinking
4.4 Extrusion technologies
4.4.1 Extrusion/particulate leaching
4.4.2 Co-extrusion/phase separation
4.4.3 Extrusion with blowing agents
4.5 Conclusions and future directions
5 Phase-separation technologies for 3D scaffold engineering
5.1.1 Porous scaffold technologies in tissue engineering
5.1.2 Short historical overview of TIPS process
5.2 Phase-separation technologies for 3D scaffolds
5.2.1 Thermal induced phase-separation technique (TIPS) for polymers
5.2.1.1 Parameters affecting the TIPS process
5.2.1.2 Basic thermodynamics of TIPS process
The Gibbs free energy of mixing
Phase equilibria and miscibility in liquid polymer systems
Critical solution temperature (CST)
5.2.2 Solid–liquid and liquid–liquid phase separation
5.2.2.1 Solid–liquid phase separation
5.2.2.2 Liquid–liquid phase separation
5.2.2.3 Binodal and spinodal curve in TIPS process
5.3 Three-dimensional scaffold preparation by TIPS process
5.3.1 Tissue engineering scaffolds by TIPS process
5.3.2 Applications of solid–liquid phase separation
5.3.3 Applications of liquid–liquid phase separation
6 Gas foaming technologies for 3D scaffold engineering
6.2 Conventional gas foaming
6.2.1 Chemical blowing agents
6.2.2 Physical blowing agents
6.3.1 Application of microfluidic foaming scaffolds
6.4 Conclusion and final remarks
7 Freeze-drying technologies for 3D scaffold engineering
7.2 Application of freeze-drying
7.3 Parameters of freeze-drying process
7.3.1 Instrumental parameters
7.3.2 Solution parameters
7.4 Nonpolymeric 3D scaffolds
8 Textile technologies for 3D scaffold engineering
8.2 Textile engineering techniques
8.2.1 History of biomedical textiles
8.2.2 Conventional textiles
8.2.2.1 Woven, knitted, and braided textiles
8.2.2.2 Nonwoven textiles: Electrospinning as a platform technology
8.3 Biomedical textiles and current applications
8.3.1 Cardiovascular biomedical textiles
8.3.2 Biotextiles in wound healing
8.3.3 Biotextiles for surgical and orthopedic applications
8.4 Innovative and functional 3D scaffolds manufactured via textile engineering techniques
8.5 Future of medical textiles as 3D scaffolds: Advanced Functional Fabrics of America (AFFOA)
9 3D printing technologies for 3D scaffold engineering
9.1 3D printing techniques for scaffold engineering
9.3 3D-Bioplotter printing
9.4 Fused deposition modeling
9.5 Selective laser sintering
10 Extrusion-based 3D printing technologies for 3D scaffold engineering
10.2 Extrusion-based AM systems with material melting
10.3 Extrusion-based AM systems without material melting
10.4 Production of bioactive composites using the SEF process
10.5 High resolution 3D printing of bioceramics
11 Scaffold functionalization to support a tissue biocompatibility
11.2 Surface functionalization methods
11.2.1 Pre-functionalization strategies
11.2.2 Covalent functionalization with bioactive molecules
11.2.3 Non-covalent functionalization with bioactive molecules
11.3 Techniques for the physicochemical analysis of the surface functionalization
11.3.1 Surface wettability
11.3.2 Colorimetric analysis
11.3.3 Zeta potential measurement
11.3.4 Spectroscopy techniques
11.3.5 Microscopy techniques
11.3.6 Real-time analysis techniques
11.3.7 In vitro cell characterization of scaffolds
12 Functional three-dimensional scaffolds for skeletal muscle tissue engineering
12.3 Overview of scaffold materials
12.3.1 Synthetic materials
12.3.2 Naturally-derived materials
12.3.2.1 Decellularized ECM and other mammalian polymers
12.3.2.2 Other naturally-derived materials
12.3.3 Scaffold-less technologies
12.4 Overview of scaffold manufacturing techniques
12.5 Designing a skeletal muscle construct
12.5.1 Restoration of function
12.5.1.2 Mechanical properties
12.5.1.3 Electrical conductivity
12.5.1.4 Biocompatibility and regeneration
12.5.2 Restoration of structure
12.5.2.1 Porosity and pore architecture
12.5.2.2 Integrate with native tissue
12.5.2.3 Conforming to the defect
12.6 Challenges and future trends
13 3D functional scaffolds for cardiovascular tissue engineering
13.2 Cardiovascular physiology basics
13.3 Cardiovascular disease
13.4 Tissue engineering for cardiac disease modeling and drug screening
13.4.1 Cardiac tissue engineering perspectives
13.4.2.1 Engineered heart tissues
13.4.2.2 Microfabrication and microfluidics
13.4.2.3 Tissue engineered ventricles
13.4.3 Discussion and future perspectives
13.5 Cardiovascular tissue engineering for clinical use
13.5.1 Cardiac tissue engineering for muscle regeneration
13.5.1.1 Tissue engineering strategies for cardiac repair
Cell identity and properties
Materials and their methods of delivery
13.5.1.2 Current clinical trials and challenges in translation
13.5.1.3 Discussion and future perspectives
Timing of the intervention
Quantification of cardiac function
13.5.2 Heart valve tissue engineering
13.5.2.1 Design concepts in heart valve tissue engineering
13.5.2.2 Clinical translation
13.5.2.3 Discussion and future perspectives
Remodeling and recellularization in vivo
Supply and tissue banking
13.5.3 Blood vessel tissue engineering
13.5.3.1 Design concepts in blood vessel tissue engineering
13.5.3.2 Clinical translation
13.5.3.3 Discussion and future perspectives
13.6.1 Drug discovery and disease modeling
13.6.2 Clinical applications
14 3D functional scaffolds for skin tissue engineering
14.2 Basic requirements of scaffolds for STE
14.2.3 Scaffold architecture
14.2.4 Mechanical properties
14.3 In vitro and in vivo applications of scaffolds for STE
14.4 Conclusion and future prospects
15 3D functional scaffolds for tendon tissue engineering
15.1 Background of human tendons
15.1.1 Composition and fibrous architecture of tendon
15.1.2 Biomechanical function of tendon
15.1.3 Current therapies for tendon repair
15.2 Current scaffolding techniques for tendon tissue engineering
15.2.4 Integration of electrospinning, knitting, and braiding
15.2.5 Electrohydrodynamic jet printing (E-jetting) technology
15.2.6 Collagen fiber extrusion
15.2.8 Microfiber melt drawing
15.3 Considerations of 3D tendon scaffolds
15.3.1 Biomaterials and degradation
15.3.3 Mechanical properties
15.3.4 Crimped fiber morphology
15.3.5 Mechanical stimuli
16 3D functional scaffolds for cartilage tissue engineering
16.1.1 Articular cartilage: Function, composition, and structure
16.1.2 Cartilage degeneration: Medical needs, current treatments, and problems
16.1.3 Cartilage tissue engineering as an approach
16.2 Scaffold materials used for cartilage tissue engineering
16.2.2 Synthetic scaffolds: Synthetic biodegradable polymers
16.3 Scaffold design for cartilage tissue engineering
16.3.1 Scaffold physical architecture
16.3.2 Mechanical strength
16.3.3 Degradation properties
16.4 3D scaffold fabrication techniques
16.4.1 Traditional fabrication techniques
16.4.1.1 Particulate leaching
16.4.1.3 Phase separation
16.4.2 Textile technologies
16.4.3 3D printing and 3D bioprinting techniques
16.4.4 Hydrogel scaffold fabrication techniques
16.4.5 Hybrid scaffold fabrication techniques
17 3D Functional scaffolds for dental tissue engineering
17.2 Scaffolds for periodontal regeneration
17.2.1 Monophasic systems
17.2.2 Multiphasic systems
17.2.2.1 Injectable systems
17.2.2.2 Pre-fabricated multi-layered systems
17.2.2.3 Custom-made three-dimensional systems
17.3 Scaffolds for endodontic regeneration
17.3.1 Implantable 3D scaffolds for endodontics
17.3.2 Injectable scaffolds for endodontics
17.4 Whole-tooth regeneration approaches
17.5 Conclusions and future trends
Functional 3D Tissue Engineering Scaffolds
：Materials, Technologies, and Applications
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