Cover

Title page

Copyright page

Contents

Contributors

Biographies

Preface

Chapter 1 - Service Life Prediction: Why Is This so Hard?

Introduction

The SLP process

Step 1. Identification and Quantification of the Use Conditions

Step 2. Determining the Response of Materials to the Environmental Variables

Spectral Power Distribution

Irradiance

Temperature

Humidity

Dew

Rain

Step 3. Establishment of Rational Test Conditions

Translation to engineering practice

The question of correlation

Some technical challenges

Characterization of Use Environments

Methods for Multivariable Testing

Efficient Mechanical Property Estimation

Finding Measurable Changes That Underlie Failure Mechanisms

Conclusions

References

Chapter 2 - Weathering Standards and Service Life Prediction of Polymers: How Can We Bridge the Gap?

Introduction

Standards

Standards That are Used to Physically Produce a Material, Part, Product, or Structure

Standards That Govern How We Communicate and Interact With the World

Standards That Define Operating Procedures

Weathering tests

Weathering Test Standards

Roles of Weathering Tests

Pass/Fail Tests for Material Screening

Comparative Tests

Service Life Estimations or Predictions

The limitations of standards

Problems With Legacy Standards

Misapplication of Good Standards: Right Standard, Wrong Material

Misapplication of Good Standards: Evolving Degradation Mechanisms

Effective weathering standards development

The Arwood Study on Wood Coatings

Acid Etch of Automotive Clear Coats

The New State of the Art in Automotive Xenon Arc Weathering Standards

A proposal to accelerate the evolution of weathering standards

Conclusions

References

Chapter 3 - Experimental and Derived Approaches to Service Life Prediction Models

Introduction

Discussion: Two Approaches

Characteristics of “Experimental” Approach

Characteristics of “Derived” Approach

Synergistic Approaches Using Both “Derived” and “Experimental” Characteristics

Examples of “Experimental” Approaches at the SLP Symposium Over the Years

Examples of “Derived” Approaches at the SLP Symposium Over the Years

Examples Using Both “Experimental” and “Derived” Approaches Synergistically

Experiment: Detailed Example of a Simple “Experimental” Approach

Experiment Introduction

Outdoor Reference Environment Weathering

Outdoor Reference Exposure Data

Meteorological and Irradiation Data

Artificial Laboratory Weathering

Xenon Arc Exposure Data

Construction of Model Functions and Predictive Equations

Inputting Environmental Characteristic Data Measured During Outdoor Exposures Into the Predictive Model

Conditioning Environmental Characteristic Data for Input Into Model

Solving the Empirical Model for Each Time Increment

Weighting (Proportioning) Incremental Degradation Contributions and Summing

Summing to Obtain the Final Model Estimate

Validating the Model

Using the SLP Model for Predicting SLP in Other Environments

Discussion of Uncertainties

Experiment Conclusions

Synergisms: supplementing one approach with another

Supplementing “Experimental” Approaches With “Derived” Knowledge

Supplementing “Derived” Approaches With “Experimental” Knowledge

Summary

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 4 - Natural Weathering Testing and 401(k)’s

Nature, Standardized

Natural Weathering Testing and Variability

The Speed of Natural Weathering Testing

Natural Versus Accelerated Weathering Testing: A Cost Comparison

Natural Weathering Testing as A Compounding Investment

It’s All About Inflection Points

Conclusions

References

Chapter 5 - New Tools for Service Life Prediction and Risk Minimization for Exterior Building Product Finishes

Service life prediction and risk management

Accelerated weathering as a tool for risk reduction

First Evaluation of ASTM D7869-13 as a Predictive Tool for Florida Weathering of PVDF-Based Topcoats

Using “Color Balance” as a Tool for Assessing Chemical Changes Induced by Natural and Accelerated Weathering Methods

Conclusions

References

Chapter 6 - Highly Accelerated UV Weathering: When and How to Use it

Introduction

Materials and sample format

Methodology and approach

Determination of Acceleration Factor for UV Light

Temperature Effect in Photothermal Degradation

Increase Light Acceleration Factor AFlight

Xenon Arc Weather-Ometers

Eye Lighting Super UV Chamber

Results and discussions

Estimation of AFlight

Wavelength Sensitivity B

Determination of Irradiance at Targeted Materials: The Effect of Encapsulant Thickness

Estimation of AFTemp

Correlation Between SUV and Xenon Arc

Reciprocity

Validation of the Model

Conclusions

References

Chapter 7 - Assessing the Effects of Accelerated Weathering Stresses Used to Predict Service Life

Introduction

Experiment

Materials

Exposures

Accelerated Weathering at Moderate to High Irradiance

Accelerated Weathering at Very High Irradiance

Outdoor Weathering

Thermal Exposure

Analyses

UV–Visible Absorption

Infrared Absorption

Fluorescence

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance

Differential Scanning Calorimetry

Intrinsic Viscosity

Results and discussion

Effect of Temperature and Intermittent Exposure

Effect of Exposure at High Irradiance

Effect of Multiple Degradation Pathways

Effect of Hydrolysis at High Temperature

Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 8 - Spectral Power Distributions in Accelerated and Natural Weathering Tests and Their Impact on Aerospace Coating Serv...

Introduction

Objectives of the study

Materials

Methods

Results

Modeling Results: Damage Propensity Dependence on SPD Using Different Filters as Compared to South Florida

Modeling Results: Damage Propensity Dependence at Altitude Versus at Surface and With Different Filters

Aerospace Coating Natural Weathering Gloss Degradation

Basecoat–Clearcoat Versus Monocoat Degradation in SAE J2527, ASTM D7869, and South Florida

Acceleration Factors Relative to South Florida, Based on Gloss Decay

Discussion on need for stability of SPDs in accelerated weathering chambers

Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 9 - Predicting Field Degradation of Sealants Using Accelerated Tests from the NIST Solar Sphere

Introduction

Laboratory data

Outdoor data

Laboratory model

Level 1

Level 2

Estimation

Prior

Computation

Results

Translation procedure

Results

Map of degradation for a typical year

Conclusions

Appendices

A - Stan Model Code

B - R Code to Run Stan Model Code

References

Chapter 10 - Prospects of 2D-Luminescence Spectroscopy for Aging Investigations of the Embedding EVA Polymer in PV Modules: Reve...

Introduction

Luminescence of commercial PV modules after accelerated aging and outdoor weathering

Experimental

Modules and Aging Conditions

Luminescence Detection Set-Up

Luminescence Patterns

Correlation of Luminescence, Aging Parameters and Materials

Temperature

UV Radiation

Materials

Conclusions

Correlation of luminescence patterns and material aging

Specimens

Dynamic Mechanical Analysis of EVA Samples From DH-Aged Specimens

Mathematical Description of DLO Profiles

Spatial Profiles of Luminescence and DMA Parameters After Dark Thermal Aging

Analysis of the UV-Aged Specimen

Conclusions and Discussion

Summary and outlook

References

Chapter 11 - Effect of Temperature on Radiation-Induced Degradation of EPDM

Introduction

Experimental

Material

Irradiation

Tensile Test

Result and discussion

Changes in Mechanical Properties

Analysis Using “Modulus–Ultimate-Elongation Profile”

Construction of “Modulus–Ultimate-Elongation Profile”

Application of “Modulus–Ultimate-Elongation Profile” to the Degradation of EPDM by Heat and Radiation

Conclusions

References

Chapter 12 - Combination of Material Characterization and Cyclic Fatigue Testing for Investigation of Elastomer Aging

Introduction

Materials and methods

Material and Aging Procedure

Cyclic Fatigue Testing

Mechanical Methods

Dynamic Mechanical Analysis

Tensile Testing

Stress Relaxation

Compression Set

Low-Field Proton NMR

Chemical Methods

Solvent Swelling Method

MALDI-TOF-MS

Py-GCMS

Spectroscopic Methods

NMR Spectroscopy

IR Spectroscopy

Results and discussion

Cyclic Fatigue

Force-Controlled Cyclic Fatigue Testing

Displacement-Controlled Cyclic Fatigue Testing

Comparison of Force- and Displacement-Controlled Wöhler (S–N) Curves

Mechanical Methods

Dynamic Mechanical Analysis

Stepwise Tensile Testing

Stress Relaxation

Compression Setting

Low-Field Proton NMR

Chemical Methods

MALDI-TOF-MS on Extracts

IR Spectroscopy on Extracts

NMR Spectrometry on Aged Samples

Pyrolysis Gas Chromatography Mass Spectrometry on Aged Samples

Comparison of the results

Average Molecular Mass Between Crosslinks Mc

Cyclic Fatigue and Average Molecular Mass Between Crosslinks

Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 13 - Multivariate Statistical Process Control of Accelerated Weathering Chambers

Introduction

Experimental

Results and conclusions

Determination of the Rates of Change of b* and Haze as Functions of Time Under the Conditions of ASTM G155 Cycle 1

Multivariate Statistical Process Control

Conclusions and recommendations

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 14 - Effect of UV Radiation on Surface Mechanical Properties of NanoTiO2–Acrylic Urethane Coatings

Introduction

Experimental

Materials

UV Exposure Experiments

Characterization

Nanoindentation (Depth-Sensing Indentation)

Tensile Tests

Laser Scanning Confocal Microscope (LSCM)

Results and discussion

Nanoparticle Dispersion Characterization

Surface Mechanical Changes Under UV Radiation

Surface Morphological Changes Under UV Radiation

Summary

NIST disclaimer

References

Chapter 15 - A Study of Critical Strain and Nanomechanical Test Methods as Predictive Tools for Coating Changes in Weathering

Introduction

Experimental methods and materials

Coating and Specimen Preparation

Weathering Exposure

Cracking Time-to-Failure Analysis

Critical Strain and Critical Fracture Energy Analysis

Nanomechanical Analysis

Results and discussion

Standard Property Testing

Critical Strain Testing

Quasistatic Nanoindentation

Fracture Energy

Dynamic Properties (Storage and Loss Modulus and Tan Delta)

Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 16 - Non-Free Radical Oxidation Mechanisms

Introduction

Some Facts About Oxygen

Free radical chain autoxidation mechanism

Other oxidation mechanisms

Singlet Oxygen

Electron Transfer Oxidation

Direct Electron Transfer Photooxidation

Radical Cation Chain Oxidation

Direct Reaction of Triplet Oxygen With Double Bonds

Hydrogen Abstraction by Oxygen

Example 1. Photooxidation of a poly(phenylene ether) (PPE) model compound

Example 2. Thermal oxidation of triphenyloxazole

Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 17 - Summary of the Discussions Following Each Session of the 6th International Conference on Service Life Prediction of...

Appendix - Service Life Prediction Series Cumulative Table of Contents

Volume 1

Volume 2

Volume 3

Volume 4

Volume 5

Index

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