Chapter
1.4 The Structure−Bioactivity Relationship of Polysaccharides
1.4.4.2 Carboxymethyl Group
1.4.4.3 Other Substitution Groups
2 Methodologies for Studying Bioactive Polysaccharides
2.1 Isolation, Purification, and Characterization
2.2.1.3 Periodate Oxidation and Smith Degradation
2.2.1.4 Methylation Analysis
2.2.2 Instrumental Methods
2.2.2.1 UV-Vis Spectrophotometry and FTIR Spectroscopy
2.2.2.2 Chromatography and Mass Spectroscopy
2.2.2.2.2 Mass Spectroscopy
2.2.2.3.1 Liquid-State NMR
2.2.2.3.2 Solid-State NMR
2.3.2.2 Minimization of Molecules
2.4 Animal Studies and Clinical Trials
2.4.2.1 Tissue Engineering
2.4.2.2 Wound Healing and Wound Dressing
2.4.2.3 Drug Delivery and Controlled Release
2.4.2.4 Treatment of Cancer
2.5 Cell Culture: Action of Mechanism−Polysaccharide−Receptors Interactions
2.5.1 Natural Killer Group 2D
2.5.3 Toll-Like Receptor 4
2.5.4 Toll-Like Receptor 2
2.5.8 The Mannose Receptor
2.5.9 Scavenger Receptors
2.5.11 Complement Receptor 3 (CR3)
2.5.12 Membrane Immunoglobulins
2.5.13 Receptor Protein 105/Myeloid Differentiation-1
3 Beta-Glucans and Their Derivatives
3.1.1 Beta-Glucan From Fungi
3.1.2 Beta-Glucan From Bacteria
3.1.3 Beta-Glucan From Plants and Algae
3.2 Preparation, Extraction, and Purification
3.2.1 Hot-Water Extraction
3.2.2 Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction and Microwave-Assisted Extraction
3.2.3 Purification of Beta-Glucan
3.4 Molecular Characteristics
3.5.1 Immune-Enhancement and Antitumor Effects
3.5.1.2 Ganoderma lucidum Polysaccharide
3.5.1.3 Yeast Beta-Glucans
3.5.2 Antihypocholesterolemic and Antihpyerglycemic Effects
3.5.3 Antioxidant Activity
3.5.4 Antimicrobial and Antiviral Effects
3.6 Discussion: Structure–Bioactivity Relationship
3.6.2 Molecular Weight and Solubility
3.6.5 Other Chemical Modifications
4 Cordyceps Polysaccharides
4.1 Harvesting and Preparation
4.1.1 Polysaccharide Content in Cordyceps
4.1.1.1 Cordyceps sinensis
4.1.1.2 Cordyceps militaris
4.1.1.4 Cordyceps sobolifera
4.1.1.5 Cordyceps pruinosa
4.1.1.6 Cordyceps ophioglossoides
4.1.2 Isolation and Purification of Polysaccharide in Cordyceps
4.1.2.1 Hot-Water Extraction (HWE)
4.1.2.2 Ultrasonic-Assisted Extraction (UAE)
4.1.2.3 Microwave-Assisted Extraction (MAE)
4.1.2.4 Other Extraction Technologies
4.1.2.5 Purification Methods
4.2.2 Cordyceps militaris
4.2.4 Other Cordyceps species
4.3 Molecular Characteristics
4.4.1 Protective Effects on the Kidney
4.4.2 Immunomodulatory Activity
4.4.3 Antioxidant Activity
4.4.4 Hypoglycemic Effect
4.4.5 Anti-Tumor Activity
4.4.6 Protective Effect on Liver Disease
4.4.7 Anti-Platelet Effect
4.4.8 Antimutagenic Effect
4.4.9 Longevity and Anti-Aging
4.5 Discussion: Structure–Bioactivity Relationship
5 Complex Glucomannan From Ganoderma atrum
5.1 Preparation and Structural Characterization
5.1.2 Chemical Analysis of PSG-1
5.1.3 Structural Features of PSG-1
5.1.3.1 Infrared (IR) Spectroscopy
5.1.3.3 Methylation Analysis
5.1.3.4 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Analysis
5.2.1.1 Macrophage Immunomodulatory Activity
5.2.1.1.1 PSG-1 is Free of Endotoxin (LPS) Contamination
5.2.1.1.2 Effect of PSG-1 on FITC-Dextran Internalization
5.2.1.1.3 Effect of PSG-1 on Nitric Oxide Production and mRNA Expression of iNOS
5.2.1.1.4 Effect of PSG-1 on TNF-α and IL-1β Release
5.2.1.1.5 Effect of PSG-1 on Reactive Oxygen Species Generation
5.2.1.2 The Signal Pathways Involved in the Macrophage Immunomodulatory by PSG-1
5.2.1.2.1 PSG-1 Induces Activation of MAPKs Pathway
5.2.1.2.2 Activation of PI3K/Akt Pathway by PSG-1
5.2.1.2.3 Inhibition of PI3K/Akt Prevented PSG-1-Induced Activation of MAPKs
5.2.1.2.4 Effect of PSG-1 on Activation of NF-κB
5.2.1.2.5 PI3K/Akt and MAPKs Pathways Were Involved in the Activation of NF-κB
5.2.1.3 The Membrane Receptor and Signaling Pathway Involved in the Activation of Macrophages by PSG-1
5.2.1.3.1 Fluorescence Labeling of PSG-1 and Dextran
5.2.1.3.2 TLR4 is the Major Receptor Involved in Specific Binding of PSG-1 to Macrophages
5.2.1.3.3 TLR4-Dependent Activation of Macrophages by PSG-1
5.2.1.3.4 The Role of ROS in Regulating PSG-1-Induced PI3K/Akt, MAPKs, NF-κB Pathways
5.2.1.3.5 PSG-1-Induced Rac-1 Activity and the Effect of DPI in Rac-1 Activation
5.2.2.1 Anti-Tumor Activity of PSG-1 on CT26-Bearing Mice
5.2.2.1.1 Effect of PSG-1 on the Proliferation of CT26 Vells In Vitro
5.2.2.1.2 PSG-1 Inhibited the Growth of Transplantable Tumors
5.2.2.1.3 Apoptosis in CT26-Bearing Mice
5.2.2.1.4 Effect of PSG-1 on the Mitochondrial Transmembrane Potential (ΔΨm) in Tumors of CT26-Bearing Mice
5.2.2.1.5 PSG-1 Increased Release of Cytochrome c and Apoptosis-Associated Protein Expression in the Tumor of CT26-Bearing Mice
5.2.2.1.6 Effect of PSG-1 on Caspase Activity in the Tumor of CT26-Bearing Mice
5.2.2.1.7 Effect of PSG-1 on Reactive Oxygen Species Production in Tumors of CT26-Bearing Mice
5.2.2.1.8 Distinct Changes of Intracellular cAMP and cGMP Concentrations in Tumors
5.2.2.1.9 Effect of PSG-1 Treatment on AC and DAG Content
5.2.2.1.10 Effect of PSG-1 on PKA and PKC in Tumors During PSG-1-Induced Apoptosis
5.2.2.2 Immunomodulatory Effect of G. atrum Polysaccharide on CT26 Tumor-Bearing Mice
5.2.2.2.1 Immune Function of PSG-1 in CT26-Bearing Mice
5.2.2.2.2 Effect of PSG-1 on Spleen Lymphocyte Proliferation in CT26-Bearing Mice
5.2.2.2.3 Effect of PSG-1 on Peritoneal Macrophages Phagocytosis in CT26-Bearing Mice
5.2.2.2.4 Effects of PSG-1 on NO, TNF-α, and IL-1β Production by Macrophages in CT26-Bearing Mice
5.2.2.2.5 Anti-TLR4 Antibody Partly Abrogates TNF-α Production in Peritoneal Macrophages From PSG-1-Treated Tumor-Bearing Mice
5.2.2.2.6 Specific Blockers of p38MAPK and NF-κB Abrogate TNF-α Production in Peritoneal Macrophages in PSG-1-Treated Tumor...
5.2.2.2.7 PSG-1 Stimulates TLR4-Mediated NF-κB Pathways
5.2.2.2.8 Involvement of the p38 MAPK Pathway in PSG-1-Induced Anti-Tumor Responses
5.2.3.1 PSG-1 Attenuates Hyperglycemia and Hyperlipidemia
5.2.3.1.1 Effect of PSG-1 on FBG Levels of Type 2 Diabetic Rats
5.2.3.1.2 Effect of PSG-1 on OGTT Blood Glucose Levels in Type 2 Diabetic Rats
5.2.3.1.3 Effect of PSG-1 on Insulin Levels and Insulin Sensitivity in Type 2 Diabetic Rats
5.2.3.1.4 Effect of PSG-1 on Serum Lipids in Type 2 Diabetic Rats
5.2.3.1.5 Histopathological Observation
5.2.3.1.6 Effect of PSG-1 on the Expression of Bax and Bcl-2 in the Pancreatic Tissues of Type 2 Diabetic Rats
5.2.3.2 Effect of Polysaccharide From G. atrum on the Serum Metabolites of Type 2 Diabetic Rats
5.2.3.2.1 Analysis of Metabolite Profiles
5.2.3.2.2 Effect of PSG-1 on Serum Metabolic Profiling
5.2.3.2.3 Statistical Analyses and Potential Biomarkers
5.2.3.2.4 Identification of Potential Biomarkers and Biological Interpretation
5.3 Structure–Bioactivity Relationship
5.3.1 Acetylation and Carboxymethylation of the Polysaccharide From PSG-1
5.3.1.1 Chemical Analysis of Ac-PSG and CM-PSG
5.3.1.2 Infrared Spectra of PSG and Its Derivatives
5.3.1.3 13C Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Analyses
5.3.2 Antioxidant Activity
5.3.2.1 DPPH Radical-Scavenging Assay
5.3.2.2 Ferric Reducing Ability of Plasma (FRAP) Assay
5.3.2.3 Beta-Carotene–Linoleic Acid Assay
5.3.3 Immunomodulatory Activity
5.3.3.1 Pinocytic Activity
5.3.4 Relationship Between Structure and Bioactivity of PSG
6 Glucomannans From Dendrobium officinale and Aloe
6.1.1 Dendrobium Herbs and Dendrobium officinale
6.1.2 Introduction of Aloe
6.2.1 Preparation Process for Dendronan
6.2.1.2 Extraction of Polysaccharides Using the Hot-Water Method
6.2.1.3 Isolation of Mucilaginous Polysaccharides and Cell-Wall Polysaccharides From Fresh Dendrobium Leaves and Stems
6.2.1.4 Purification and Fractionation of Dendrobium Polysaccharides
6.2.2 Preparation Process for Acemannan
6.3.1 Structural Features of Dendronan
6.3.1.1 Methods Used for Structural Feature Analysis
6.3.1.2 Structures of D. officinale Polysaccharide
6.3.1.3 Structure of Dendrobium huoshanense Polysaccharides
6.3.1.4 Structure of Dendrobium nobile Polysaccharides
6.3.1.5 Structure of D. moniliforme Polysaccharides
6.3.1.6 Structures of Polysaccharides From Dendrobium densiflorum and Dendrobium denneanum
6.3.1.7 Other Dendrobium Polysaccharides
6.3.2 Structures of Acemannan
6.4 Chemical Modifications
6.4.1 Chemical Modifications of Dendronan
6.4.2 Chemical Modifications of Acemannan
6.5.1 Bioactivities of Dendronan
6.5.1.1 Immunostimulatory Properties
6.5.1.1.1 In Vitro Immunostimulatory Properties
6.5.1.1.2 In Vivo Immunostimulatory Properties
6.5.1.2 Antioxidant Properties
6.5.1.2.1 In Vitro Antioxidant Properties
6.5.1.2.2 In Vivo Antioxidant Properties
6.5.1.3 Antitumor Properties
6.5.1.3.1 In Vitro Antitumor Properties
6.5.1.3.2 In Vivo Antitumor Properties
6.5.1.4 Hypoglycemic Activity
6.5.1.5 Liver Protective Properties
6.5.1.6 The Effects on Sjögren’s Syndrome
6.5.1.7 Antibacterial Activity
6.5.2 Bioactivities of Acemannan
6.5.2.1 Immunomodulatory Activity of Acemannan
6.5.2.2 Antioxidant Activity
6.5.2.3 Antitumor Activity
6.5.2.4 Wound Healing Activity
6.5.2.5 Periodontal Health Care Ability
6.5.2.6 Gastrointestinal Protective Effect
6.5.2.7 Other Bioactivities
6.6 Discussion: Structure−Bioactivity Relationship
7.3 Physicochemical and Structural Features
7.4 Chemical Modification of Tea Polysaccharides
7.5 Bioactivity of Tea Polysaccharides
7.5.1 Hypoglycemic Effect
7.5.2 Hypolipidemic and Antiatherogenic Effects
7.5.3 Anticoagulant and Antithrombotic Effects
7.5.4 Lowering Blood Pressure, Hypoxia Tolerance, and Increasing the Flow of Coronary Blood
7.5.5 Immunomodulatory Activity
7.5.6 Anticancer and Antitumor Activities
7.5.8 Radiation Protection
7.5.11 Antifatigue Activity
7.5.12 Hepatoprotective Effects
7.5.13 Benefits on Gastrointestinal Function
7.6 Structure–Function Relationship
8 Psyllium Polysaccharide
8.3 Molecular Characteristics
8.4.2 Therapy for Intestinal Diseases
8.4.3 Intestinal Function Activity
8.4.4 Hypoglycemic Effect
8.4.5 Hypocholesterolemic Effect
8.4.7 Immune Enhancement Effect
8.4.9 Possible Adverse Effects: Anaphylaxis, Rhinitis, and Asthma
8.5 Discussion: Structure−Bioactivity Relationship
8.5.2 Structural Modifications
8.6.1 Food Industry and Dietary Fiber Supplements
8.6.2 Drug Delivery Systems
8.6.3 Wastewater Treatment
9.2 Extraction and Structural Characterization
9.2.1 Solubility and Extractability
9.2.2 Solubility of Freeze-Dried β-d-Glucan Samples
9.2.3 Structural Characterizations of Cereal Beta-Glucans
9.2.3.1 Monosaccharide Composition and Linkage Pattern
9.2.3.2 Enzyme Hydrolysis
9.2.4 Structural Features
9.3 Molecular Weight, Conformation, and Rheological Properties
9.3.1 Molecular Weight Determination
9.3.2 Solution and Conformational Properties
9.3.2.1 Solution and Aggregation Behavior
9.3.2.2 Conformational Properties: Light Scattering and Computer Modeling
9.3.3 Rheology: Viscoelastic and Gelling Properties
9.3.3.2 Viscoelastic Properties and Gelation
9.4 Bioactivities and Health Benefits
9.4.1 Beta-d-Glucan and Blood Glucose
9.4.2 Beta-d-Glucan and Cholesterol Levels
9.4.3 Fermentation Properties and Gut Health and Other Bioactivities
10 Other Herbal Polysaccharides
10.1 Sources and Preparation
10.1.1 Panax ginseng Polysaccharide
10.1.2 Angelica sinensis Polysaccharide
10.1.3 Lycium barbarum Polysaccharide
10.1.4 Astragalus Polysaccharides
10.2.1 Panax ginseng Polysaccharide
10.2.2 Angelica sinensis Polysaccharide
10.2.3 Lycium barbarum Polysaccharide
10.2.4 Astragalus Polysaccharide
10.3.1 Panax ginseng Polysaccharide
10.3.1.1 Antitumor Effect
10.3.1.2 Immune Enhancement Effect
10.3.2 Angelica sinensis Polysaccharide
10.3.2.1 Antitumor Effect
10.3.2.2 Immune Enhancement Effect
10.3.2.3 Hematopoietic Effect
10.3.3 Lycium barbarum Polysaccharide
10.3.3.1 Antitumor Effect
10.3.3.2 Immune Enhancement Effect
10.3.3.3 Antioxidant Activity
10.3.4 Astragalus Polysaccharide
10.3.4.1 Antitumor Effect
10.3.4.2 Immune Enhancement Effect
11 Practical Applications of Bioactive Polysaccharides
11.1 Bioactive Polysaccharides as Clinical Drugs and Medicines
11.1.2 Immunomodulatory Drugs
11.1.4 Hypoglycemic Drugs
11.1.5 Anticoagulant Drugs
11.1.6 Ulcer Healing Drugs
11.1.7 Bioactive Polysaccharides as Vaccinum
11.2 Practical Applications in the Food Industry
11.2.1 Applications in Food Preservation
11.2.3 Application in Beverages
11.2.4 Application in Fried Foods
11.2.5 Application in Noodles, Bread, or Cake Making
11.2.6 Application in Meat Products
11.2.7 Application in Desserts
11.3 Applications in Drug Delivery
11.3.1 Drug Carrier in Micro Particle Systems
11.4 Applications in Agriculture
11.4.2 Application in Pesticides
Bioactive Polysaccharides
Disclaimer: Any content in publications that violate the sovereignty, the constitution or regulations of the PRC is not accepted or approved by CNPIEC.
