Chapter
2.3 Crude Oil Composition
2.4 Analytical Techniques
2.5 The Biomarker Concept
2.5.6 Aromatic Hydrocarbons
2.6 Compound-Specific Isotope Analyses
2.7 Weathering–Evaporation, Water Washing, Biodegradation
3 Fingerprinting Analysis and Source Differentiation of Petroleum-Contaminated Environmental Samples
3.2 Fingerprinting Analysis of Target Analytes
3.3 Assessment of Hydrocarbon Groups in Environmental Samples
3.4 Assessment of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Environmental Samples
3.5 Assessment of Petroleum Biomarkers in Environmental Samples
4 The Application of Isotope Geochemistry in Stray Gas Investigations: Case Studies
4.3 Case Study #1—Introduction
4.4 Case Study #1—Results and Discussion
4.4.2 Early Thermogenic Gas
4.4.3 Mature Thermogenic Gas
4.4.4 Mechanism of Migration
4.4.5 Underground Coal Mining
4.5 Case Study #1—Conclusion
4.6 Case Study #2—Introduction
4.7 Case Study #2—Results and Discussion
4.9 Case Study #2—Conclusion
5 Forensic Aspects of Airborne Constituents Following Releases of Crude Oil Into the Environment
5.2 Crude Oil Heterogeneity and Weathering
5.3 Airborne Chemicals of Concern Following Crude Oil Spills
5.3.1 Spills Unaccompanied by Fire
5.3.2 Crude Oil Spills Accompanied by Fires
5.3.2.1 General Composition of Petroleum Oil Smoke
5.3.2.2 Hazardous Constituents of Petroleum Smoke
5.3.2.2.2 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons
5.3.2.2.3 Volatile Organic Compounds
5.3.2.2.4 Combustion Gases
5.4 Health Protective Values
5.4.1 Occupational Exposure Levels
5.4.2 Community Exposure Guidelines
5.4.2.1 Protective Action Criteria
5.4.2.2 ATSDR Minimal Risk Levels
5.5 Identification of Critical Volatile Organics During Crude Oil Releases
5.6 Air Monitoring Strategies
5.6.1 Real-Time Air Monitoring
5.6.2 Analytical Air Sampling
5.7 Case Study—Air Monitoring During the Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill
5.7.1 Sampling and Analysis of Deepwater Horizon Crude Oil From the Sea Surface
5.7.2 Chemistry of Vapors From the Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill
5.8 Case Study—Comparison of Hydrocarbon Vapor Profiles and Inhalation Hazard Potential in Bakken vs Non-Bakken Light Sweet...
6 Combined Gas and Liquid Chromatography Tandem Mass Spectrometry Applications for Forensic Lubricant and Vegetable Oil Spi...
6.2.1 Reagents and Materials
6.3 Results and Discussions
6.3.1 Selection of Extraction Solvent
6.3.2 Case No. 1—Application to Lube Oil Spill Identification
6.3.2.1 GC/FID Characterization—Lube Oil Spill
6.3.2.2 GC/MS Characterization—Lube Oil Spill
6.3.2.3 LC/MS/MS Characterization—Lube Oil Spill
6.3.3 Case No. 2—Application to Plant Base Oil Cases, Vegetable Oil Coloring Agent
6.3.4 Case No. 3—Application to Plant Base Oil Cases, Application to Neem Oil Determination
7 Environmental Forensics Study of Crude Oil and Petroleum Product Spills in Coastal and Oilfield Settings: Combined Insigh...
7.2 Materials and Methods
7.2.2 Experimental Methods
7.2.2.1 Extraction and LC Fractionation
7.2.2.2 Conventional GC–MS
7.2.2.3 Thermodesorption–GC–MS and Pyrolysis–GC–MS
7.3 Results and Discussion
7.3.1 Overview of General Characteristics
7.3.1.2 Aboño Fuel Oil Spill
7.3.1.3 Prestige Fuel Oil Spill
7.3.1.5 Macondo Oil Spill
7.3.2 Principal Compound Groups
7.3.2.1 Aliphatic Hydrocarbons
7.3.2.2 Hopanes and Steranes
7.3.2.3 Polycyclic Aromatic Compounds
7.3.2.3.1 Phenanthrenes and Dibenzothiophenes in Aromatic Fractions and Thermodesorption Products
7.3.2.3.2 PACs in Pyrolyzates
8 Paraffin Wax Spill Identification by GC–FID and GC–MS
8.1.2 Case Study—Paraffin Wax on a Dutch Beach
8.2 Experimental and Data Analysis Methods
8.2.4 Instrumentation and Analytical Methods
8.3 GC–FID Results Evaluation
8.3.1 Weighted Mean Versus Standard Deviation
8.3.2 GC–FID Sample Comparison
8.4 GC–MS Results Evaluation
8.4.1 GC–MS Compound and Ratio Selection
8.4.2 GC–MS Sample Comparison
8.5 Case Study Conclusions
8.6.1 Weighted Mean Versus Standard Deviation Plot
8.6.4 CEN (2012) Conformity
9 Challenges and Mysteries in Oil Spill Fate and Transport Modeling
9.1 Introduction to Oil Spill Modeling
9.2 Forensics in Oil Spills
9.4 Example Oil Transport
9.5 Case Studies for Subsurface Well Blowouts
9.6 Case Study: Was There a Mega-Seep or a Well Blowout Offshore of Venezuela in the 1970s?
9.7 Case Studies in Sunken Oils
9.8 Mystery Spills and Mysterious Oiled Wildlife
9.9 Seaweed and Oil Spills—An Emerging Topic
9.10 What Do You Do With a Dead Whale?
10 Unraveling the Complexities of Upland Spilled Fuels: Selected Case Studies
10.2 Chemical Fingerprinting Methodologies
10.3 Selected Case Studies
10.3.1 Case Study 1: Allocation and Spatial Extent of the Spilled Gasoline Attributed to Two Retail Gasoline Stations
10.3.1.1 Chemical Fingerprinting Analysis
10.3.1.3 Weathering State of the Fugitive Gasoline
10.3.1.4 Alkylate Character of the NAPLs
10.3.1.5 Comingled Mixtures of Gasoline in the Study Area
10.3.1.6 Allocation of the End Member Sources
10.3.2 Case Study 2: Identifying Fugitive Petroleum at an Automobile Repair Shop
10.3.2.1 Examples of Common Petroleum Products at Automobile Repair Facilities
10.3.2.2 Use of Gas Chromatography and Molecular Fingerprinting to Reconcile Fugitive Oil with a Suspected Source
10.3.3 Case Study 3: Allocation Between Petrogenic and Pyrogenic Sources of PAH at a Contaminated Industrial Site
10.3.3.1 PAH Content and Character of Petroleum and MGP Tar
10.3.3.2 PAH Character and the Alkyl-PAH Index (%API)
10.3.3.3 Example Case—Allocating Sources of PAH in Soils at an Industrial Site
10.3.3.4 GC/FID Fingerprinting Results
10.3.4 Case Study 4: Chemical Fingerprinting of Dissolved Phase Petroleum-Derived Hydrocarbons.
11 Advantages of Multidimensional Chemical Fingerprinting in Identifying the Source of Marine Oil Spills in Bohai Bay, China
11.2.1 Determination of n-Alkane Distributions
11.2.2 Determination of Fluorescence Spectra
11.2.3 Determination of Nickel and Vanadium Concentrations
11.3 Results and Discussion
11.3.1 The Distribution of n-Alkanes in Bohai Crude Oil After Short- and Long-Term Weathering
11.3.2 The Distribution Feature of n-Alkanes in Marine Fuel After Short- and Long-Term Weathering
11.3.3 The Fluorescence Characteristics of Bohai Crude Oil After Short- and Long-Term Weathering
11.3.4 The Fluorescence Characteristics of Marine Fuel After Short- and Long-Term Weathering
11.3.5 The Characteristics of Ratio of Nickel to Vanadium of Bohai Crude Oil and Marine Fuel After Long-Term Weathering
11.3.6 Summary of Distinguishing Features—Bohai Crude Oil Versus Marine Fuel
11.4 Application of Multidimensional Chemical Fingerprinting to Identification of Mystery Oil Spills in Bohai Bay
11.4.1 Determination of Oil Attribution Based Upon n-alkanes
11.4.2 Determination of Oil Attribution Based Upon Fluorescence
11.4.3 Determination of Oil Attribution Based Upon Ni/V
12 Distinguishing Genetically-Similar Diesel Fuels in Taiwan Using Principal Component Analysis of Diagnostic Ratios
12.2.2 Sample Preparation and Analysis Method
12.3 Results and Discussion
12.3.1 PCA–DRs Approach Development
12.3.2 Evaluation of PCA–DRs Approach—Gasoline Interference and Weathering Effect
12.3.3 Application to Contaminated Sites
13 Application of CEN Methodology in Evaluating Sources of Multiple Land-Based Fuel Spills in Alberta, Canada
13.3 Case Study 1—Alleged Diesel Fuel Impacts to Surface Soils
13.3.1 Conclusion—Case Study 1
13.4 Case Study 2—Extent of Crude Oil in Soils Following a Pipeline Fracture
13.4.1 Conclusion—Case Study 2
13.5 Case Study 3—Source of Oil on Oiled Waterfowl and Muskrat
13.5.1 Conclusion—Case Study 3
14 Development and Application of Phase-Specific Methods in Oiled-Water Forensic Studies
14.2.1 Field Collection Techniques
14.3 Forensic Assessment Methods
14.4 Case Studies—Results and Implications
14.4.1 Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Tissues
14.4.2 EVOS—Nearshore and Intertidal Seepage
14.4.3 New Carissa Oil Spill
14.4.4 Port Valdez—Long-Term Monitoring
14.4.5 Gulf of Alaska Region—Long-Term Monitoring
14.4.6 Cosco Busan Oil Spill
14.4.6.1 Forensic Assessments
14.4.6.2 Shoreline Cleanup-Agent Tests of Cosco Busan Oil
15 Applications of the CEN Methodology in Multiple Oil Spills in Spanish Waters
15.2 Major Sources of Oil Pollution
15.3 Source Identification of Oil Spills
16 Fingerprinting of Petroleum Hydrocarbons in Malaysia Using Environmental Forensic Techniques: A 20-Year Field Data Review
16.1.3 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons
16.2 Materials and Methods
16.2.2 Chemicals and Glassware
16.2.3 Standards and Standard Mixtures
16.2.4 Analytical Procedure
16.2.5 Quality Control and Quality Assurance
16.2.6 Determination of Total Organic Carbon
16.2.7 Determination of Lipid Content
16.3 Results and Discussion
16.3.1 Use of n-Alkanes as Source Identifiers of PHCs in Malaysia
16.3.2 Hopanes as Source Identifiers of PHCs in Malaysia
16.3.3 PAHs as Source Identifiers of PHCs in Malaysia
17 Long-Term Monitoring Study of Beached Oils Around the Shetland Isles, United Kingdom
17.1.1 The Beached Oil-Monitoring Program
17.2.1 Analytical Methodology
17.2.2 Interpretation Methodology
17.3.3 Comparison/Visualization of the Dataset by Statistical Means
17.3.3.1 Cluster Analysis
17.3.3.2 Principle Components Analysis
18 The Erika Oil Spill: 10 Years Monitoring Program and Effects of the Weathering Processes
18.2 Physical–Chemical Properties of the Erika Oil
18.3 Natural Degradation of the Erika Oil (10-Year Monitoring Program)
18.4 Study in Controlled Conditions
18.5 Study of Molecular Ratios
19 Environmental Assessment of Spills Related to Oil Exploitation in Canada’s Oil Sands Region
19.2 Oil Sands Production
19.3 Origin and Physicochemical Properties of COSR Oils
19.4 Past Oil Spill Cases in the COSR
19.5 Environmental Fate and Behavior of COSR Oils
19.6 Environmental Effects of COSR Oils
20 Chemical Fingerprinting Assessment of the Impact to River Sediments Following the Bakken Crude Oil Train Derailment and ...
20.2 Samples and Analytical Methods
20.3 Results and Discussion
21 The Pixel-Based Chemometric Approach for Oil Spill Identification and Hydrocarbon Source Differentiation: Two Case Studi...
21.1.1 Introduction to Case Studies
21.2 Materials and Methods
21.2.1 Sampling and Sample Preparation
21.2.2 Chemical Analysis and Quality Control
21.2.3 Data Collection and Structure
21.2.4 Data Preprocessing and Principal Component Analysis
21.3 Results and Discussion
21.3.1.1 “Local” Models for Source Identification
21.3.1.2 “Global” Model for Petrogenic Source Identification
21.3.2.1 “Global” Model for Oil Spill Identification
21.3.2.2 “Local” Models for Oil Spill Identification
22 Use of Passive Samplers to Determine the Source of Dissolved PAHs in the Ottawa River, Toledo, Ohio
22.1.1 Use of Passive Samplers
22.1.2 Calculating Aqueous Concentrations From PED Data
22.1.3 Site Background—Ottawa River Case Study
22.1.4 Potential Sources of PAH Contamination to the Ottawa River
22.2.1 Preparation of PEDs
22.2.3 Analytical Methodologies
22.2.4 Calculating Water Concentrations From PED Data
22.3.1 Concentrations of PAHs in Water and Sediment
22.3.2 Signature of Dissolved PAHs in Water
22.3.3 Forensic Signature of PAHs in Whole Water Samples
22.3.4 Forensic Signature of PAHs in Surface Sediment
22.3.5 Trends in PAH Forensic Signatures
23 Fingerprint and Weathering Characteristics of Petroleum Hydrocarbons in the Coastal Zone Following the “7-16” Dalian Cru...
23.2.1 Sample Collection for Oil Spill in Dalian
23.2.2 Extraction, Fractionation, and Gas Chromatography–Mass Spectrometer
23.2.3 Gas Chromatography–Combustion Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometry
23.3 Result and Discussion
23.3.1 Temporal Variation Characteristics of Petroleum Hydrocarbon Content
23.3.1.1 Crude Oil Adhered to the Rocks
23.3.1.2 Crude Oil Residues in Surface Sediment
23.3.2 Distribution of Alkane and Acyclic Isoprenoids
23.3.3 Distribution of PAHs
23.3.3.1 Distribution of PAHs in Weathered Crude Oil Residue
23.3.3.2 Distribution of PAHs in Surface Sediment
23.3.4 Evaluation on the Diagnostic Ratios for Spilled Oil Identification
23.3.4.2 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons
23.3.4.3 Terpane and Sterane Biomarkers
23.3.4.4 Carbon Isotopic Composition of the n-Alkanes
23.3.5 Weathering on PAH Diagnostic Ratios for the Identification of Pollution Emission Sources
23.3.6 Implication of Weathering on Ecotoxicology
24 Case Study in the Use of Forensic History in Matters Involving Pipeline Ruptures
24.1 Brief History of Pipeline Development
24.3 Notable Developments in Pipeline Technology
24.4 Aging Infrastructure
24.5.2 Initial Research Questions
24.5.3 Part 1—History of the Pipeline
24.5.3.1 Phase 1: Obtaining Pipeline Company Data
24.5.3.2 Phase 2: Researching Trade Literature, Technical Publications, and Other Secondary Sources
24.5.3.3 Interim Deliverables
24.5.4 Part 2—History of the Subdivision
24.5.4.1 Interim Deliverables
24.5.5 Part 3—The History of the “Downstream” Properties
24.5.5.1 Interim Deliverable
25 Comparison of Quantitative and Semiquantitative Methods in Source Identification Following the OSPAR Oil Spill, in Paran...
25.1.1.1 DRs Based on PAHs
25.1.1.2 DRs Based on Biomarkers
25.1.2.1 Baseline Removal
25.1.2.2 Retention Times Alignment
25.2.2 Analytical Techniques for Determination of Hydrocarbon Concentrations
25.2.3 Analytical Techniques for Determination of Hydrocarbons Raw Data
25.2.3.1 Reagents and Chemicals
25.2.3.2 Sample Preparation
25.2.4 Quantitative and Semiquantitative Methods for Source Identification
25.2.4.1 Diagnostic Ratios
25.2.4.1.1 Quantitative DRs Calculated from the Compounds Concentrations
25.2.4.1.2 Semiquantitative DRs Calculated from Heights and Areas of Chromatograms
25.2.4.2.2 Data Processing and Analysis
25.3 Results and Discussion
25.3.1 Assessment of Sediment from Iguaçu and Barigüi Rivers Through Quantitative DRs Calculated from the Compounds Concent...
25.3.2 Assessment of Soil Samples Inside Refinery Area through Semiquantitative DRs Calculated from Heights and Areas of Ch...
25.3.2.1 GC/FID Analysis (Level 1)
25.3.2.2 GC/MS Analysis (Level 2)
25.3.2.2.1 Spill Sample PM-02 and Cusiana Oil
25.3.2.2.2 Spill Sample BH-03 (0.1m) and Cusiana Oil
25.3.2.2.3 Spill Sample BH-04 (0.1m) and Cusiana Oil
25.3.3 Chemometric Assessment of Soil and Sediment Samples
25.3.3.1 Initial Source Identification Based on a Subset of SICs
25.3.3.1.1 Pollution Levels and Weathering Degree
25.3.3.1.2 Exclusion of Samples with Low Contamination Level
25.3.3.2 Source Identification Using Relative Fingerprints of 38 Groups of PAHs
25.3.3.3 Biomarkers Data Analysis
26 Different Forensic Approaches for Hydrocarbons Sources Identification in an Urban Cluster Environment: Guanabara Bay
26.2.3 Methodology for Quantitative Analyses: Geochemistry Evaluation and Multivariate Analysis—Approaches 1 and 2
26.2.4 Methodology for Semiquantitative PAH Analyses and CHEMSIC (Chemometric Analysis of Selected Ion Chromatograms)—Appro...
26.2.4.4 Chemometric Data Analysis
26.3 Results and Discussion
26.3.1 Approach 1—Quantitative Analyses: Geochemistry Evaluation
26.3.1.1 Aliphatic Hydrocarbons
26.3.2 Approach 2—Quantitative Analyses: Multivariate Analysis
26.3.3 Approach 3—Semiquantitative Analyses of PAHs and CHEMSIC (Chemometric Analysis of Selected Ion Chromatograms)
26.3.3.1 Baseline Removal and Retention Time Alignment
26.3.3.2 Normalization Scheme 1 (Normalization to Internal Standards)
26.3.3.3 Normalization Scheme 2 (Euclidean Norm)
27 Hydrocarbon Sources and Biotechnology Applications in Todos os Santos Bay, Brazil
27.3 Petroleum Contamination in Todos os Santos Bay
27.3.1 Sampling and Determination of Geochemical Parameters
27.4 Biotechnological Applications: Intrinsic Bioremediation
27.4.1 Experimental Development
27.4.2 Monitoring of Biological, Physical, and Chemical Parameters
27.4.3 Bioremediation: Results and Discussion
27.5 Applications of New Biotechnologies: Multiprocess Bioremediation and Phytoremediation
27.5.1 Experimental Development
27.5.2 Monitoring of Biological, Physical, and Chemical Parameters
27.6 Results and Discussion
27.7 Final Considerations
28 Assessing the Role of Environmental Conditions on the Degradation of Oil Following the Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill
28.2 Extent of Oil Spill and Hydrocarbon Contamination
28.5.2 Sunlight Changes Oil-Degrading Bacterial Community
29 Using Stable and Radiocarbon Analyses as a Forensic Tool to Find Evidence of Oil in the Particulates of the Water Column...
29.2.1 Suspended Particulate Organic Carbon (POCsusp) Samples
29.2.2 Sinking Particulate Organic Carbon (POCsink) Samples From Sediment Traps
29.2.3 Sediment Samples From Cores
29.3.1 Suspended Particulate Organic Carbon (POCsusp) Samples
29.3.2 Sinking Particulate Organic Carbon (POCsink) Samples From Sediment Traps
29.3.3 Sediment Samples From Cores
29.3.3.1 Deepwater Horizon Effected Sites
29.3.3.2 GC600 Natural Seep Site
29.4.1 Suspended Particulate Organic Carbon (POCsusp) Samples
29.4.2 Sinking Particulate Organic Carbon (POCsink) Samples From Sediment Traps
29.4.3 Sediment Samples From Cores
30 Red Crabs as Sentinel Organisms in Exposure of Deep-Sea Benthos to Macondo Oil Following the Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill
30.2.1 Red Crab Sample Collection
30.2.2 Red Crab Sample Analysis
30.2.3 Sample Preparation
30.2.4 Instrument Analysis
30.2.5 Fingerprint Classification
30.3 Results and Discussion
30.3.1 Red Crabs as Sentinel Organisms in the Deep Benthos
30.3.3 Uptake and Metabolic Effects
30.3.4 Macondo Oil Reference Samples for Comparison to Red Crab Tissues
30.3.5 Red Crab Reference Tissue Selection
30.3.6 Alteration of Source Oil Signatures by Red Crab Metabolism
30.3.7 Evidence for Macondo Oil Exposure in Red Crabs
30.3.8 Red Crabs Tissues in 2014
30.3.9 Evidence of Natural Seep Oil Exposure in Remote Red Crabs
31 Modeling Distribution, Fate, and Concentrations of Deepwater Horizon Oil in Subsurface Waters of the Gulf of Mexico
31.2.1 Oil Spill Models: OILMAP-Deep and SIMAP
31.2.1.2 Modeled Processes in SIMAP
31.2.1.3 Estimation of Concentrations and Model Outputs
31.2.2 Oil Fate Model Inputs
31.2.2.1 Geographical and Model Grid
31.2.2.2 Temperature and Salinity
31.2.2.3.1 ADCP-Based Current Fields
31.2.2.3.2 Hydrodynamic Models
31.2.2.4 Small Scale Dispersion (Diffusion)
31.2.2.5 Suspended Particulate Matter
31.2.2.7 Biodegradation Rates
31.2.2.8 Amounts and Timing of Oil Release
31.2.2.9 Trap Height of Buoyant Plume and Oil Droplet Sizes
31.2.2.10 Model Parameters
31.3.1 Literature Studies on DWH Oil Contamination in Deep Water
31.3.2 Summary of NRDA Chemistry and Sensor Data
31.4 Results of Oil Transport and Fate Modeling
31.4.2 Transport and Oil Trajectories
31.4.3 Modeled Concentrations
31.4.4 Comparison of the Modeled Concentrations to Field Measurements
32 Louisiana Coastal Marsh Environments and MC252 Oil Biomarker Chemistry
32.1.1 Spilled Oil in the Environment
32.1.2 Louisiana Coastal Salt Marsh Environments
32.1.3 Oil in Coastal Salt Marsh Environments
32.2 Louisiana Coastal Marshes and MC252 Oil Biomarker Chemistry
32.2.1 MC252 Oil Biomarkers and Oil Source Fingerprinting
32.2.1.1 Diagnostic Oil Biomarker Ratios
32.2.1.2 Other Oil Source Fingerprinting Techniques
32.2.2 Weathering Pattern of MC252 Diasteranes and Regular Steranes
32.2.3 Buried MC252 Oil Residues
33 Novel Biological Exposures Following the Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill Revealed by Chemical Fingerprinting
33.2.1 Sargassum—Samples & Methods
33.2.2 Sargassum—Results and Discussion
33.2.3 Sargassum—Conclusion
33.3.1 Deep-Sea Coral—Samples & Methods
33.3.2 Deep-Sea Coral—Results and Discussion
33.3.3 Deep-Sea Coral—Conclusion
33.4 Osprey Nest Material
33.4.1 Osprey Nest Material—Samples & Methods
33.4.2 Osprey Nest Material—Results and Discussion
33.4.3 Osprey Nest Material—Conclusion
33.5.1 Dolphin Lung Tissue—Sample and Methods
33.5.2 Predicting Breathing Zone Vapor Phase Fingerprint
33.5.3 Dolphin Lung Tissue—Results
33.5.4 Dolphin Lung Tissue—Conclusion
34 Forensic Identification of Historical and Ongoing Tar Oil Releases in Nearshore Environments
34.1.1.1 Coal Gas (1816–75)
34.1.1.2 Byproduct Coke Ovens (1892–Present)
34.1.1.3 Carbureted Water Gas (1875–1960s)
34.1.1.4 Pacific Oil Gas (1889–1929)
34.1.1.5 High Btu Oil Gas (1945–60s)
34.1.1.6 Natural Gas (1925–Present)
34.2 Hydrocarbon Source Signatures
34.2.2 Modern Anthropogenic Effects
34.2.3 Generation of Pyrogenic PAHs
34.3.2.1 Alumina Solid Phase Cleanup of Polar Organics
34.3.2.2 Copper Solid Phase Cleanup of Sulfur
34.3.2.3 Silica Gel Fractionation of Aliphatic Hydrocarbons
34.3.3 High Resolution Hydrocarbon Fingerprints
34.3.4 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons
34.3.5 Saturated Hydrocarbons
34.3.6 Geochemical Biomarkers
34.3.8 Case-Study Samples
34.4 Dominant Hydrocarbon Signatures
34.4.1 Petrogenic Products
34.4.2 Pyrogenic Products
34.5 Saturated Hydrocarbon Signatures
34.5.1 Biodegradation Patterns
34.5.2 Petroleum Patterns
34.5.3 Tar Oil Feedstock Residues and Product Patterns
34.6 Aromatic Hydrocarbon Signatures
34.6.3 Geochemical Biomarkers
34.6.4 Tar Oil Weathering
34.6.5 Hydrocarbon Trends and Source Ratios
34.6.5.1 Aggregate Hydrocarbon Measurements
34.6.5.2 PAH Double Ratios
34.6.5.3 Geochemical Biomarker Double Ratios
Oil Spill Environmental Forensics Case Studies
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