Chapter
Historical Considerations
A Multidisciplinary Approach
Defining Diverse Modes of Thinking
Determining Cause and Effect
Reasoning and Decision Making
What Does the Future Hold?
END-OF-CHAPTER THOUGHT QUESTIONS
2 - The History of Reasoning Research
EARLY APPROACHES TO STUDYING REASONING
Reasoning Through Human History
What We Can Learn From the Philosophical Approach
Limitations of Philosophical Inquiry
EARLY PSYCHOLOGY OF REASONING
Reasoning in Early Psychological Research
The Emergence of Knowledge About the Brain
Behaviorism in the United States and Its Effects on Reasoning Research
Behavioral Views on Reasoning and Gestalt Psychology (1920s–1940s)
Reasoning Research (1930s–1950s)
COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY OF REASONING
Cognitive Psychology and Reasoning Research (1950s to Present)
The Information Processing Approach to Studying the Mind
A Cognitive Approach to Human Judgment and Decision Making
THE EVOLUTION OF COGNITIVE MODELING
Modeling the Cognitive Processes Involved in Reasoning (1980s–Present)
Parallel Distributed Processing
DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY OF REASONING
Studies of Infant Cognition
NEUROSCIENCE OF REASONING
The Emergence of Cognitive Neuroscience (1990–Present)
END-OF-CHAPTER THOUGHT QUESTIONS
3 - The Neuroscience of Reasoning
THE NEUROSCIENCE OF REASONING
Differences in Brain Capacity
ANATOMICAL CONSIDERATIONS
The Importance of Association Cortex for Higher Cognitive Functions
The Expansion of the Association Cortex in Predators
Communication Across Cortical Areas
NEUROSCIENCE OF RELATIONAL REASONING
From Hypotheses to Neural Network Models and Experiments
Investigating Reasoning Ability in the Brain
Localization of Reasoning and the Prefrontal Cortex
Left Prefrontal Cortex and Relational Reasoning With Analogies
Integrating Relational and Semantic Information
The Cognitive Operations of Reasoning
FUNCTIONAL NEUROANATOMY OF KNOWLEDGE
The Temporal Lobes and Networks for Concepts
DEDUCTION, INDUCTION, AND THE BRAIN
A Strong Philosophical Distinction
Evidence From Neuroimaging
A Focus on Process-Related Areas in Deduction and Induction
NEURAL NETWORKS OF REASONING
A Shift Toward Neural Networks
END-OF-CHAPTER THOUGHT QUESTIONS
4 - Comparative Reasoning: A Cross-Species Perspective
BIOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ANIMALS AND HUMANS
Evolutionary Considerations
Differences in Brain Capacity
What Can We Learn From Animal Studies?
Comparing Problem Solving Across Species
How to Test the Reasoning Abilities of Animals
Field Studies of Animal Behavior
Laboratory-Based Studies of Animal Reasoning
The Tension Between Experimental Control and Ecological Validity
ASSOCIATIVE LEARNING AS A BASIS FOR ANIMAL REASONING
Behaviorism and Classical Conditioning
Dopaminergic Systems and Predicting Rewards
ASSOCIATION AS A BASIS FOR PROBLEM SOLVING
The Clever Hans Phenomenon
Problem Solving in the Wild
Tool Use and the Transmission of Hunting Techniques Within Species
CAUSAL REASONING IN NONHUMANS
Moving Beyond Arbitrary Associations
Do Non-Human Primates Understand Cause and Effect?
Testing for a Concept of Self in Animals
Evidence for Theory of Mind in Chimpanzees, Elephants, and Cetaceans
RELATIONAL REASONING IN ANIMALS
The Role of Symbols in Relational Thinking
The Relational Match-to-Sample Problem
END-OF-CHAPTER THOUGHT QUESTIONS
5 - Reasoning Origins: Human Development During Childhood
ASSESSING COGNITIVE ABILITIES
The Dynamic Nature of Brain Development
Synaptogenesis and Pruning
DEVELOPMENT OF REASONING IN CHILDHOOD
The Developmental Stages of Jean Piaget
The Sensorimotor Period: 0–2 Years of Age
The Preoperational Period: 2–7 Years of Age
The Concrete Operations Period: 7–11 Years of Age
The Formal Operations Period: 12Years of Age and Older
Evaluating Piaget’s Theory: A Perspective From Decades Later
CAUSAL REASONING IN CHILDREN
Do Young Children Use the Markov Assumption to Determine Cause?
DEDUCTION AND INDUCTION IN CHILDREN
Deductive Reasoning in Children
Inductive Reasoning in Children
RELATIONAL REASONING IN CHILDREN
Relational Shift in Children
Analogical Reasoning in Children
JUDGMENT AND DECISION MAKING IN CHILDREN
How Children Make Decisions
The Representativeness Heuristic in Children
The Role of Availability in Children’s Decisions
Anchoring in Children’s Decision Making
DEVELOPMENT OF MORAL REASONING
Stages of Moral Development
END-OF-CHAPTER THOUGHT QUESTIONS
6 - Reasoning Over the Lifespan
REASONING ACROSS THE LIFESPAN
BIOLOGICAL CHANGES IN ADOLESCENCE
Biological Change and Hormones
THE BRAIN AND REASONING FROM ADOLESCENCE TO ADULTHOOD
Age-Related Changes in Frontal Lobe Network Interconnectivity
Frontal Lobe Changes in Reasoning Capacity With Age
COGNITION AND BEHAVIOR IN ADOLESCENTS
Decision Making and Risk in Adolescence
Biological Changes Associated With Risk-Taking Behavior
EXECUTIVE CONTROL AND ADVANCED REASONING SKILLS
Changes in Memory Capacity in Adolescence
Memory and Inferences in Adolescence
BRAIN CHANGES ASSOCIATED WITH AGING ADULTS
CHANGES IN COGNITION WITH AGING
Changes in Processing Speed
Changes in Working Memory
The Role of Inhibitory Control in Reasoning as People Age
PRACTICAL REASONING IN THE OLDER YEARS
Reasoning and Healthy Aging
7 - Disorders of Reasoning
COGNITIVE FACTORS IN REASONING DISORDERS
Working Memory Disruptions and Reasoning
The Effects of Long-Term Memory Loss on Reasoning Ability
SOCIAL DEFICITS AND REASONING
NEUROLOGY OF REASONING DEFICITS
Cortical Change in Dementia and Aging
DISORDERS OF RELATIONAL REASONING
Impairments of Visuospatial Relational Reasoning
Challenges in Understanding and Applying Analogies
DISORDERS OF DECISION MAKING
The Effects of Brain Damage on Decision Making
DISRUPTIONS OF MORAL REASONING
Stages of Moral Development
END-OF-CHAPTER THOUGHT QUESTIONS
8 - Reasoning About Contingencies, Correlations, and Causes
REASONING ABOUT CONTINGENCIES, CORRELATIONS, AND CAUSES
ESTABLISHING CAUSE AS A BUILDING BLOCK FOR KNOWLEDGE
The Importance of Establishing Cause
CORRELATION OR CAUSATION?
The Challenge of Establishing Causal Links
THE CHALLENGES OF ESTABLISHING CAUSE
Frequency Matching and Maximizing in Two-Choice Decision Tasks
The Neuroscience of Frequency Matching and Maximizing
Inferring Control Over Outcomes
Hypotheses, Guessing, and the Brain
PERCEIVING CAUSAL INFLUENCE
Illusions of Conscious Willed Action
END OF CHAPTER THOUGHT QUESTIONS
9 - Deduction and Induction
DEDUCTIVE AND INDUCTIVE REASONING
Examples of Deductive Logic
Challenges in Deductive Reasoning
DEDUCTIVE REASONING IN THE LABORATORY
Laboratory Methods for Evaluating Deducting Logic
The Wason Card Selection Task
The Role of Context on the Wason Card Selection Task
Theories of Syllogistic Reasoning
Evolutionary Psychology and Deductive Reasoning
DEDUCTIVE REASONING IN EVERYDAY LIFE
Comparisons Between Reasoning in the Laboratory Versus Reasoning in the Real World
Evidence From Cultural Differences in Deduction
Induction: From Example to Generalization
INDUCTIVE REASONING IN THE LABORATORY
Inductive Reasoning Tasks
FACTORS THAT AFFECT INDUCTIVE REASONING
Similarity as a Key Property for Inductive Inferences
Inductive Reasoning and Homogeneous CategoryEffects
Other Factors Influencing the Strength of Inductive Inferences
Expertise and Cultural Background Influence Induction
END-OF-CHAPTER THOUGHT QUESTIONS
10 - Analogical Reasoning
RELATIONAL CORRESPONDENCES: THE BUILDING BLOCKS OF ANALOGIES
Attending to Relational Matches in Situations
What Makes Objects Similar?
Similarity Between Situations
PLACING ITEMS INTO CORRESPONDENCE
How Do Objects Correspond in an Analogy When People Make Inferences?
Alignable and Non-Alignable Properties
SEMANTIC MEMORY AND THE ROLE OF ASSOCIATIONS
Creative Analogies Based on Long-Distance Mappings
Semantic Networks and Insight
The Coarse Coding Hypothesis
Do People Notice Analogies Between Situations?
ANALOGICAL REASONING IN EVERYDAY LIFE AND THE LABORATORY
Analogies as Cognitive Tools
Daily Life Studies of Analogical Reasoning
END-OF-CHAPTER THOUGHT QUESTIONS
11 - Decision Making and Abductive Reasoning
THE SCIENCE OF DECISION MAKING
How Is Decision Making Related to Reasoning?
Academic Fields That Study Decision Making
SIMPLE AND COMPLEX DECISIONS
Multi-Attribute Decision Making
Quantifying and Predicting Rational Behavior
Factors That Make Rational Behavior Difficult to Predict
The Psychological Impact of Gains and Losses
Cognitive Biases in Decision Research
Dual-Systems and Cognition
The Benefits of Heuristics
Relationships Between Induction, Deduction, and Abduction
Applications of Abductive Reasoning
DECISION MAKING AND THE BRAIN
Value and Decision Making
END-OF-CHAPTER THOUGHT QUESTIONS
12 - Social Cognition: Reasoning With Others
SOCIAL COGNITION: REASONING WITH OTHERS
REASONING ABOUT THE MINDS OF OTHERS
Evidence for Theory of Mind in Other Species
The Development of Theory of Mind
SOCIAL REASONING IN OTHER SPECIES
Social Dominance Hierarchies
Social Behavior in Nonhuman Primates
Social Behavior in Cetacean Pods
The Rapid Spread of Behavior Across Populations
Parent-to-Offspring Transmission of Reasoning Strategies
Behavioral Varieties Among Distinct Groups
Implications of Social Abilities for Problem Solving
SOCIAL ABILITY AND FACE PERCEPTION
The Face of Communication
The Basic Emotions and Cross-Cultural Similarities
The Role of First Impressions
SOCIAL ASPECTS OF REASONING
Group Problem Solving on the Cognitive Reflection Task
Group Problem Solving on the Wason Card Selection Task
Factors That Influence Group Creativity
Overcoming the Limitations of Generating Ideas in Groups
SOCIAL ASPECTS OF DECISION MAKING
THE NEUROSCEINCE OF TRUST
THE EFFECTS OF CULTURE ON SOCIAL REASONING
Attributions About Others Are Influenced by Culture
Trust Games Across Cultures
END-OF-CHAPTER THOUGHT QUESTIONS
13 - Future Directions in Reasoning: Emerging Technology and Cognitive Enhancement
FUTURE DIRECTIONS IN REASONING
ADVANCES IN AUTOMATED COMPUTING
First Generation Computers
Second Generation Computers
Third Generation Computers
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND HUMAN REASONING
The Development of Artificial Intelligence
Deep Learning and the Future of Artificial Intelligence
Experiments Using Technological Approaches
Applications of Technology to Improve Reasoning
END-OF-CHAPTER THOUGHT QUESTIONS
Reasoning
：The Neuroscience of How We Think
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