Chapter
I. The Heart as an Endocrine Organ
1 Cardiac Natriuretic Peptides
Gene Structure of Natriuretic Peptides
Atrial Natriuretic Peptide
Brain or B-type Natriuretic Peptide
C-type Natriuretic Peptide
Translation, Processing, and Storage of Cardiac Natriuretic Peptides
Atrial Natriuretic Peptide
Brain or B-Type Natriuretic Peptide
C-Type Natriuretic Peptide
Circulating Concentrations, Forms, and Metabolism of Natriuretic Peptides
Circulating Forms and Metabolism
Natriuretic Peptide Receptors
Circulating Natriuretic Peptide Signal Peptides
Assays Measuring Natriuretic Peptides in the Circulation
Integrative Role in Physiology and Pathophysiology
Natriuretic Peptide as Therapeutic Agents
Combined ACE and NEP Inhibitors
Combined ARB and NEP Inhibitors—New Frontier in Heart Failure Therapy
Natriuretic Peptides as Biomarkers in Heart Failure
Natriuretic Peptides in Diagnosis of Acute Decompensated Heart Failure
BNP and NT-proBNP for Community Screening for Cardiac Impairment
B-Type Natriuretic Peptides for Prognosis in Heart Failure
Marker Guided Therapy in Heart Failure
Molecular Forms, Structure, and Structure-Activity Relationships of Adrenomedullin
The Adrenomedullin Receptor
Cardiac Actions of Adrenomedullin
Effect of Adrenomedullin on Cardiac Contractility
Effect of Adrenomedullin on Cardiac Structure
Pathophysiological Function of Adrenomedullin in Cardiac Disease
Cardiac Hypertrophy and Heart Failure
Acute Myocardial Infarction
Clinical Applications of Adrenomedullin to Cardiac Disease
Effect of Adrenomedullin Administration in Patients with Heart Failure
Clinical Application of Adrenomedullin in Acute Myocardial Infarction
Clinical Trials with Adrenomedullin
3 Endothelin-1 as a Cardiac-Derived Autocrine, Paracrine and Intracrine Factor in Heart Health and Disease
Cardiac Production of ET-1
Cardiac ET-1 Production in Heart Disease
Expression of Cardiac ET Receptors
Intracellular ET Receptors: Evidence for an Intracrine Role of ET-1 in the Cardiac Cell
Mechanisms Underlying Inotropic Responses
Physiological and Pathophysiological Roles of Cardiac-Derived ET-1: General Concepts
Association of ET-1 With Cardiac Diseases
ET-1 in Cardiac Hypertrophy and Heart Failure
Endogenous Modulation of ET-1: Keeping ET-1 in Check?
Potential Beneficial Effects of ET-1 in Cardiac Function
Development of Clinical Strategies aimed at Targeting ET-1
Clinical Evaluation of ET Receptor Antagonists for Treating Heart Disease
Potential Reasons for Failed Clinical Trials
4 The Cardiokines: An Expanding Family of the Heart Secretome
Cellular Components of the Heart Involved in the Cardiac Secretome
Myofibroblasts, Myocytes and Vascular Cells
The Autocrine, Paracrine, and Endocrine Heart: Components of the Cardiac Secretome
Growth Factor Generation in the Heart
Transforming Growth Factor-Beta
Vascular Endothelial Cell Growth Factor
Fibroblast Growth Factor-2 and FGF-16
Inflammatory Mediators Generated in the Heart
IL-1α, IL-1β, IL-18, and IL-33
Tumor Necrosis Factor (TNF-α) and Soluble CD40 Ligand (sCD40L)
Mesencephalic Astrocyte-Derived Neurotrophic Factor (MANF), Secreted Frizzled Related Protein (SFRP)-2, and Protease Inhibi ...
High Mobility Group box 1 Protein
Macrophage Migration Inhibitory Factor
Cardiac Exosomes and miRNA
Insight into Future Directions
5 Novel Small Peptide Hormones
Endocrine Factors Regulating Blood Pressure and Cardiac Function: Neuronostatin and Adropin
Neuronostatin: Discovery and Sites of Production
Neuronostatin and the Central Control of Blood Pressure
Neuronostatin and Cardiac Function
Assessing the Physiologic Relevance of Neuronostatin
Adropin: A Cardio-Metabolic Peptide
Adropin: An Independent Risk Factor for Cardiovascular Disease
Novel Adipokines in the Control of Cardiovascular Function: Nesfatin-1 and Omentin
Adipose Tissue as an Endocrine Organ
Nesfatin-1: Discovery, Production, and Signaling
Nesfatin-1 and the Central Control of Blood Pressure
Nesfatin-1 and Cardiac Function
Omentin: Discovery, Expression, and Signaling
Omentin and the Vasculature
The Protective Effect of Omentin in the Heart
Role of Myokines in Cardiovascular Health: Irisin
Skeletal Muscle as an Endocrine Organ
Irisin and Maintenance of the Vascular Endothelium
Modulatory Peptides Encoded by Upstream Short Open Reading Frames of Hormone Receptors: PEP7
II. The Heart as an Endocrine Target
6 Gut-Derived Hormones—Cardiac Effects of Ghrelin and Glucagon-Like Peptide-1
Gene Structure and Derived-Peptides
Type 1a GHS Receptor (GHS-R1a)
Non type 1a GHS Receptors
Ghrelin Effects on the Cardiovascular System
Modulation of the Sympathetic Control of Cardiovascular Function
Antiapoptotic Effects in Cardiac Cells
Ghrelin in the Pathophysiology of Chronic Heart Failure
Ghrelin in the Pathophysiology of Myocardial Infarction
Gene Structure and Derived-Peptides
GLP-1 Receptor Agonists (GLP-1 RAs)
DPP-4 Inhibitors (Gliptins)
Cardiovascular Effects of GLP-1
7 Fat Hormones, Adipokines
Obesity as a Chronic Proinflammatory State
Proinflammatory Adipokines
Adipocyte–Fatty Acid Binding Protein
Anti-inflammatory Adipokines
8 Neuronal Hormones and the Sympathetic/Parasympathetic Regulation of the Heart
Electrical System of the Heart
Sympathetic Nervous System of the Heart
Parasympathetic Nervous System of the Heart
Measuring Autonomic Nervous System Regulation of the Heart
Circadian Rhythm Regulation of the Autonomic System
Other Endocrine Organs and the Heart: Posterior Pituitary
Miscellaneous Hormones and the Heart
Physiology and Pathophysiology of Cardiovascular Function Involving the Autonomic System: Pregnancy and the Baroreflex
Diabetic Autonomic Dysfunction/Metabolic Syndrome (A Sympathetic Disease?) and its Effects on the Heart
Effect of Sleep Deprivation on Cardiovascular Regulation
9 Renin Angiotensin Aldosterone System and Heart Function
The Conventional Renin Angiotensin Aldosterone System
RAAS and Heart Cell Communication
AT1 Receptor as a Mechanosensor
Role of ACE Inhibitors and AT1 Receptor Blockers
ACE2/Ang (1-7) /Mas Receptor Axis Activation
Local Cardiac RAAS, the Intracrine Component
Intracellular Renin Alters Chemical Communication and Metabolic Cooperation
Mitochondria, the Nucleus and the Intracrine Renin-Angiotensin System
Aldosterone and Mineralocorticoid Receptor
10 Nuclear Receptors and the Adaptive Response of the Heart
Nuclear Receptors: Introduction
PGC Coactivators in the Developing and Diseased Heart
Regulation of Mitochondrial Mass, Ca2+, and Apoptosis
Estrogen-Related Receptors
Transcriptional Control of Metabolism
Genomic and Nongenomic Signaling
Cardiomyocyte Ca2+ Handling and Contractile Function
Mineralocorticoid Receptors
Genomic and Nongenomic Signaling
Pathophysiology: Inflammation and Fibrosis
Mineralocorticoid Antagonists in Treating Heart Failure
Thyroid Hormone Receptors
Mechanisms of Thyroid Hormone Action
TH and THR Nonnuclear Regulation
Posttranslational Mechanisms of PPAR Regulation
Emerging and Associated Players
Adrenergic Signaling: Systematic and Updated Overview
Sympathetic System and Hypertension
Role of Adrenergic System in Regulation of vascular Homeostasis and Oxidative Stress
Adrenergic Signaling and ROS
The Role of G Protein–Coupled Receptor Kinase 2 in Vascular Homeostasis
Adrenergic Signaling in Heart Failure
Adrenergic System in the Heart: Beyond the Regulation of Contractility
Adrenergic Receptors and Cardiac Metabolism
Role of Adrenergic Receptors in the Pathophysiology of Cardiac Hypertrophy
GRK2 Subcellular Localization: A Molecular Link Between Myocardial Contractility and Cardiac Metabolism
Pharmacology of Adrenergic Receptor Blockade
α-Adrenergic Receptor Blockade
β-Adrenergic Receptor Blockade
12 Insulin Signaling in Cardiac Health and Disease
Functional Importance of Insulin Receptor Signaling in the Heart
Metabolic Effects of Insulin Signaling in the Myocardium
Effects of Insulin on Glucose Transport
Effects of Insulin on Glucose Utilization
Effects of Insulin on Fatty Acid Utilization
Effects of Insulin on Protein Synthesis
Cardiac Insulin Signaling During Obesity and Type 2 Diabetes
Insulin Signaling and Cardiac Hypertrophy
Cardio-Protective Role of Insulin Signaling in Ischemia Reperfusion and Contractile Failure
Scope and Future Perspectives