Chapter
1.1.3 Seismological Terms
2 - Seismicity at Volcanoes
2.1 HISTORY OF SEISMIC MONITORING OF VOLCANIC ACTIVITY
2.2 CLASSIFICATION OF VOLCANIC EARTHQUAKES
2.2.2 Explosion Earthquakes
2.2.3 Volcanic Pulsation or Continuous Volcanic Microtremors
2.3 SEQUENCES OF VOLCANIC EARTHQUAKES
2.3.1 Sequences of Volcano-Tectonic Earthquakes
2.3.2 Sequences of Eruption Earthquakes
3 - Fundamentals of Volcanic Seismology
3.1 MAGMA FLOW WITHIN THE VOLCANIC CONDUIT
3.1.1.1 Homogeneous Magma Flow
3.1.1.2 Bubbly Liquid Magma Flow
3.1.1.3 A Gas-Particle Dispersion Magma Flow Regime
3.1.2 Modeling of Magma Flow Regimes
3.2 EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES OF THE VOLCANIC PROCESSES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS FOR THE SEISMIC SOURCES
3.2.1 Experimental Grounds of the Brittle Fracturing in the Rocks at High Temperatures and High Pressure
3.2.1.1 High-Temperature Fracturing of Volcanic Rocks
3.2.1.2 High-Pressure Deformation of Dry and Saturated Water Basalt Samples
3.2.2 Experimental Grounds of the Origin of Seismic Signals During the Magma Ascending Within the Volcanic Conduit
3.2.2.2 Modeling of Expanding Gas–Fluid Flows
3.2.2.3 Modeling of the Effect of the Fluid Type on the Measured Signal
3.2.2.4 Foam-Collapse Model
3.3 GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE SOURCE OF SEISMIC SIGNALS AT VOLCANOES
3.3.1 Equivalent Force System Acting in the Earthquake Source
3.3.4 Seismic Moment Tensor
4 - Origin of Volcano-Tectonic Earthquakes
4.1 MIGRATION OF MAGMA AND ITS SEISMIC POTENTIAL
4.2 VOLCANISM AND TECTONICS
4.3 SOURCE NATURE OF VOLCANO-TECTONIC EARTHQUAKES
4.3.1 Waveform and Spectra
4.3.2 Tensor Representation of the Source of Volcano-Tectonic Earthquake
4.4 MODELS OF VOLCANO-TECTONIC EARTHQUAKE SEQUENCES
5 - Volcano-Tectonic Earthquakes at Basaltic Volcanoes: Case Studies
5.1 VOLCANO-TECTONIC EARTHQUAKES ASSOCIATED WITH SHIELD VOLCANOES
5.1.1 Kilauea Volcano, Hawaii
5.2 VOLCANO-TECTONIC EARTHQUAKES ASSOCIATED WITH STRATOVOLCANOES
5.2.2 Oshima Volcano, Izu Islands
5.2.3 Klyuchevskoy Volcano, Kamchatka
5.3 VOLCANO-TECTONIC EARTHQUAKES ASSOCIATED WITH FISSURE ERUPTIONS
5.3.1 New Tolbachik Volcanoes, Kamchatka
5.3.2 The 2005–09 Ethiopia Rifting Episode
5.4 VOLCANO-TECTONIC EARTHQUAKES ASSOCIATED WITH CALDERA COLLAPSE
5.4.1 Fernandina Volcano, Galápagos Islands
5.5 VOLCANO-TECTONIC EARTHQUAKES ASSOCIATED WITH SUBMARINE ERUPTIONS
5.5.1 Teishi Knoll Volcano, Izu Islands
5.5.2 Miyakejima Volcano, Izu Islands
5.5.3 El Hierro Volcano, Canary Islands
6 - Volcano-Tectonic Earthquakes at Andesitic Volcanoes: Case Studies
6.1 VOLCANO-TECTONIC EARTHQUAKES ASSOCIATED WITH VOLCANIC “DIRECTED BLASTS”
6.1.1 Bezymianny Volcano, Kamchatka
6.1.2 Sheveluch Volcano, Kamchatka
6.2 VOLCANO-TECTONIC EARTHQUAKES ASSOCIATED WITH PHREATIC AND PHREATOMAGMATIC EXPLOSIONS
6.2.1 El Chichón Volcano, Mexico
6.2.2 Volcán De Colima, Mexico
6.2.2.1 Phreatic Explosion of 1994
6.2.3 Popocatépetl Volcano, Mexico
6.2.4 Soufriére Hills Volcano, Montserrat
6.2.4.1 Phreatic Explosion of August 21, 1995
6.2.4.2 Magmatic Explosion of September 17, 1996
6.3 VOLCANO-TECTONIC EARTHQUAKES ASSOCIATED WITH LAVA EXTRUSIONS
6.3.1 Volcán De Colima, Mexico
6.4 VOLCANO-TECTONIC EARTHQUAKES ASSOCIATED WITH FLANK ERUPTIONS
6.4.1 Sakurajima Volcano, Japan
7 - Volcano-Tectonic Earthquakes at Dacitic Volcanoes: Case Studies
7.1 VOLCANO-TECTONIC EARTHQUAKES ASSOCIATED WITH SUMMIT ERUPTIONS
7.1.1 Mount St. Helens, Cascades
7.1.2 Usu Volcano, Hokkaido
7.1.2.1 Eruption of 1977–78
7.1.3 Unzen Volcano, Kyushu
7.1.4 Pinatubo Volcano, Luzon
7.2 VOLCANO-TECTONIC EARTHQUAKES ASSOCIATED WITH FLANK ERUPTIONS
7.2.1 Usu Volcano, Hokkaido
8 - General Properties of Volcano-Tectonic Earthquake Swarms
8.1 PROPERTIES OF VOLCANO-TECTONIC EARTHQUAKE SWARMS INFERRED FROM THE DATA OF CHAPTERS 5 TO 7CHAPTER 5CHAPTER 6CHAPTER 7
8.1.1 Temporal Variations
8.1.2 Spatial Distributions
8.1.3 Posteruption Seismic Activity
8.1.4 Duration of Seismic Swarms Prior to an Eruption
8.1.5 Position of a Volcanic Event According to the Stage of Volcano-Tectonic Earthquake Swarm
8.2 ADDITIONAL DATA ABOUT VOLCANO-TECTONIC EARTHQUAKE SWARM PROPERTIES
8.2.1 Size of Volcano-Tectonic Earthquake Swarm Area
8.2.2 Earthquake Swarm Duration
8.2.3 Magnitude–Frequency Relations of Events in Volcano-Tectonic Earthquake Swarms
8.3 SOME REGULARITIES IN THE VOLCANO-TECTONIC EARTHQUAKE SWARMS PROCLAIMING REAWAKENING OF ANDESITIC AND DACITIC VOLCANOES
8.3.1 Relationship Between the Duration of Stage 1 and the VEI of Forthcoming Explosion
8.3.2 Relationship Between the Duration of Stage 2 and Postexplosion Dome Building
8.3.3 Conceptual Model of Reawakening Process
9 - Source Properties of Volcano-Tectonic Earthquakes
9.1 FOCAL MECHANISMS OF VOLCANO-TECTONIC EARTHQUAKES: DOUBLE-COUPLE AND NON–DOUBLE-COUPLE MODELS
9.1.1 Double Couple Model
9.1.2 Non–Double-Couple Model
9.2 SOURCE SPECTRAL CHARACTERISTICS OF VOLCANO-TECTONIC EARTHQUAKES
9.2.1 Spectra of Total Records of Volcano-Tectonic Earthquakes
9.2.2 Spectral Source Characteristics of Volcano-Tectonic Earthquakes
9.2.2.1 Seismic Moment–Magnitude Relationship
9.2.2.2 Fault Area–Seismic Moment Relationship
9.3 TEMPORAL VARIATIONS OF THE SOURCE SPECTRAL CHARACTERISTICS AND FOCAL MECHANISMS OF VOLCANO-TECTONIC EARTHQUAKES IN THE COUR ...
9.3.1 Corner Frequencies Variations
9.3.2 Stress Drop Variations
9.3.3 Stress Field Rotations
9.4 SEISMOTECTONIC DEFORMATIONS IN THE VOLCANIC REGION
10 - Significant Volcano-Tectonic Earthquakes and Their Role in Volcanic Processes
10.1 SELECTION OF SIGNIFICANT VOLCANO-TECTONIC EARTHQUAKES
10.2 FOCAL RUPTURING OF SIGNIFICANT VOLCANO-TECTONIC EARTHQUAKES AND ITS ROLE IN VOLCANIC PROCESSES
10.2.1 Rupturing of the Magnitude Mw 5.2 Earthquake Preceding the 1989 Teishi Knoll Submarine Eruption
10.2.2 Rupturing of the Magnitude Mw 7.1 Earthquake Preceding the 1996 Akademia Nauk Volcano Subaqual Eruption
10.2.3 Rupturing of the Magnitude Mw 5.6 Earthquake Preceding the 1996 Grimsvøtn Volcano Subglacial Eruption
10.3 THE MAGNITUDE 7 VOLCANO-TECTONIC EARTHQUAKES IN VOLCANIC PROCESSES
10.3.1 Event No. 2, Katmai, Alaska
10.3.2 Event No. 3, Sakurajima, Japan
10.4 SEISMIC HAZARD OF SIGNIFICANT VOLCANO-TECTONIC EARTHQUAKES
10.4.1 Maximum Magnitude Mmax
10.4.2 Attenuation of Earthquake Intensity With Distance for Volcanic Earthquakes
10.4.4 Estimation of the Seismic Hazard of Volcanic Activity of Volcán de Colima, Mexico
11 - Origin of Eruption Earthquakes
11.1 VOLCANIC PROCESSES GENERATING SEISMIC SIGNALS OF ERUPTION EARTHQUAKES
11.1.1 Processes Within the Volcanic Conduit
11.2 SOURCE MECHANISMS OF ERUPTION EARTHQUAKES
11.2.1 A Force System Equivalent to a Volcanic Eruption
11.2.2 Seismic Moment Tensors of Some Non–Double-Couple Sources of Eruption Earthquakes
11.2.2.1 Tensile Crack Source (Kumagai, 2009)
11.2.2.2 Cylindrical Source (Kumagai, 2009)
11.2.2.3 Spherical Source (Kumagai, 2009)
11.3 MODELS OF THE ERUPTION EARTHQUAKE SOURCES
11.3.1 Models Based on the Vibration of Magma-Filled Structures
11.3.1.1 The Fluid-Driven Crack Model
11.3.1.2 The Conduit-Vibration Model
11.3.2 Models Based on the Process of Deep Ascending of Magma Before an Explosion
11.3.2.1 Two-Stage Model of Volcanic Explosion
11.3.2.2 Ascending Seismic Source Model of the Source Process of an Explosion
11.3.3 Modeling of Seismic Signals Generated by Pyroclastic Flows and Rockfalls
11.3.3.1 Three-Stage Dome Collapse Model
12.1 SEISMOGRAMS AND SPECTRA
12.2 LOCATION OF VOLCANIC TREMOR
12.2.1 Oshima Volcano, Izu Islands
12.2.2 Etna Volcano, Sicily
12.2.3 Arenal Volcano, Costa Rica
12.3 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE INTENSITY OF VOLCANIC TREMOR AND VOLCANIC EVENTS
12.4 VOLCANIC TREMOR IN ERUPTIVE PROCESS
12.4.1 Etna Volcano, Sicily
12.4.2 Pavlof Volcano, Alaska
12.4.3 Kilauea Volcano, Hawaii
12.4.4 Klyuchevskoy Volcano, Kamchatka
12.4.5 Shishaldin, Unimak Island
12.5 SPECIAL CASES OF VOLCANIC TREMOR
12.5.1.1 Teishi-Knoll Volcano
12.5.1.2 New Tolbachik Volcanoes
12.5.2.1 Miyakejima Volcano
12.5.3 Long-Period Tremor
12.5.3.1 Aso Volcano, Kyushu
12.5.3.3 Okmok Volcano, Alaska
13 - Seismic Signals Associated With Pyroclastic Flows, Rockfalls, and Lahars
13.1 OCCURRENCE OF PYROCLASTIC FLOWS, ROCKFALLS, AND LAHARS DURING VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS
13.2 SEISMIC SIGNALS ASSOCIATED WITH PYROCLASTIC FLOWS AND ROCKFALLS: WAVEFORMS AND SPECTRA
13.2.1 Seismic Signals of Pyroclastic Flows Produced by the Partial Collapse of Lava Dome
13.2.2 Seismic Signals of Pyroclastic Flows Produced by the Collapse of Eruption Column
13.2.3 Seismic Signals of Pyroclastic Flows Produced by the Explosive Destruction of Growing Lava Dome
13.2.4 Seismic Signals Produced by Rockfall
13.2.5 Spectral Characteristics
13.3 OCCURRENCES OF EARTHQUAKES ASSOCIATED WITH PYROCLASTIC FLOWS AND ROCKFALLS
13.4 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE PYROCLASTIC FLOW AND ROCKFALL EARTHQUAKES AND SEISMOVOLCANIC ACTIVITY DURING THE LAVA EXTRUSION
13.5 QUANTIFICATION OF PYROCLASTIC FLOW AND ROCKFALL EARTHQUAKES
13.5.1 Quantification of Pyroclastic Flow and Rockfall Earthquakes Occurring Due to Partial Collapse of the Lava Dome and Recorded ...
13.5.2 Relationship Between the Magnitude of Earthquakes Associated With Pyroclastic Flow and Rockfall and the Volume of Pyroclast ...
13.5.3 Relation Between the Duration of Broadband Seismic Signals Associated With Pyroclastic Flows Emplaced From Eruption Columns ...
13.5.4 Relationship Between the Amplitude of Long-Period Seismic Records of Pyroclastic Flow and Rockfall Earthquakes and the Volu ...
13.6 TRACKING OF PYROCLASTIC FLOWS TRAJECTORY USING THE AMPLITUDE SIGNALS OF EARTHQUAKES
13.7 SEISMIC SIGNALS ASSOCIATED WITH LAHARS: WAVEFORMS AND SPECTRA
13.7.1 Volcán De Colima, Mexico
13.7.1.1 Lahars at Volcán de Colima
13.7.1.2 System of Monitoring
13.7.1.3 Waveforms of the Seismic Signals of Lahars
13.7.1.4 Influence of Morphology of the Ravines on the Seismic Waveforms
13.7.1.5 Spectral Content
13.7.2 Tungurahua Volcano, Ecuador
13.7.3 Mt. Merapi Volcano, Indonesia
13.8 COMPARISON OF THE SEISMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF PYROCLASTIC FLOWS AND LAHARS
14 - Seismic Signals Associated With Volcanic Explosions
14.1 WAVEFORMS AND SPECTRA
14.1.1 Strombolian Explosions
14.1.1.1 Stromboli Volcano
14.1.2 Vulcanian Explosions
14.1.3 Phreatomagmatic Explosions
14.2 NATURE OF THE SEISMIC SIGNALS OF EXPLOSIVE EARTHQUAKES
14.2.1 Comparison of the Contemporary Video and Seismic Records During an Explosion
14.2.1.1 Strombolian Explosions
14.2.1.2 Vulcanian Explosions
14.2.2 Type of Waves Composing the Seismic Signal of an Explosion
14.2.2.1 Strombolian Explosions
14.2.2.2 Vulcanian Explosions
14.3 SOURCES OF EXPLOSION EARTHQUAKES AND THEIR QUANTIFICATION
14.3.1 Multiple Source of Explosions
14.3.2 Two-Stage Conceptual Models of Explosive Process
14.3.2.1 Strombolian Explosions
14.3.2.2 Vulcanian Explosions
14.3.3 Comparison of the Source Properties of Strombolian and Vulcanian Explosions
14.3.4 Source Scaling of the Seismic Signals Associated With Vulcanian and Strombolian Explosions
14.3.4.1 Vulcanian Eruptions
14.3.4.2 Strombolian Explosions
14.4 LOCATION OF EXPLOSION EARTHQUAKES
14.4.1 Location of the Initial Subevents From Waveform Inversion
14.6 EXPLOSION EARTHQUAKES IN ERUPTIVE PROCESS
14.6.1 Explosion Earthquakes as a Component of Eruptive Process
14.6.2 Vulcanian Explosions as Indicators of the Style of Eruption Activity
14.6.2.1 Posteffusive Explosions
14.6.2.2 Coeffusive Explosions
15 - Long-Period and Very-Long-Period Seismic Signals at Volcanoes
15.1 WAVEFORMS AND SPECTRA
15.1.1 Long-Period Seismic Signals
15.1.2 Very-Long-Period Seismic Signals
15.1.3 Occurrences of Long-Period and Very-Long-Period Events
15.1.4 Nature of Long-Period and Very-Long-Period Seismic Signals
15.1.4.1 Seismic Waves Generated Within the Two-Phase System
15.1.4.2 Source of Long-Period and Very-Long-Period Seismic Signals
15.2 GEOMETRY OF THE SOURCES OF LONG-PERIOD AND VERY-LONG-PERIOD SEISMIC SIGNALS
15.3 TYPE OF FLUID WITHIN THE FLUID-FILLED CRACKS
15.3.2 Complex Frequencies of the Long-Period Seismic Signal for Different Fluids
15.3.3 Identification of the Type of Fluid From Long-Period Seismic Signals
15.4 LOCATION OF THE SOURCES OF LONG-PERIOD AND VERY-LONG-PERIOD EVENTS
15.5 CONCEPTUAL MODELS OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE SOURCES OF THE LONG-PERIOD AND VERY-LONG-PERIOD SEISMIC SIGNALS AND THEIR ...
16 - Swarms of Microearthquakes Associated With Effusive and Explosive Activity at Volcanoes
16.1 WAVEFORMS AND SPECTRA
16.2 STRUCTURE OF MICROEARTHQUAKE SWARMS
16.3 MICROEARTHQUAKE SWARMS IN ERUPTION PROCESS
16.3.1 Kizimen Volcano, Kamchatka
16.3.2 Stromboli Volcano, Aeolean Islands
16.3.3 Mount St. Helens, Cascades
16.3.4 Ubinas Volcano, Perú
16.3.5 Volcán de Colima, Mexico
16.4 NATURE OF MICROEARTHQUAKES
16.4.1 Similarity Between the Microearthquake Waveforms and the Seismic Signals Well Associated With the Volcanic Events
16.4.2 Quantification of Microearthquakes
16.4.2.1 Quantification of Microexplosions
16.4.2.2 Quantification of Rockfall-Type Microearthquakes
16.4.3 Nature of Microearthquakes Resolved From Waveform Inversion
17 - Acoustic Waves Generated by Volcanic Eruptions
17.1 INFRASONIC ACOUSTIC WAVES FROM SMALL VOLCANIC EXPLOSIONS (VEI 1 AND 2)
17.1.1 Waveforms and Spectra
17.1.2 Families of Infrasonic Signals
17.1.3 Source Location of the Infrasonic Events
17.1.4 Relationship Between the Amplitudes of the Seismic and Infrasonic Signals
17.2 LONG-PERIOD ACOUSTIC AND ACOUSTIC-GRAVITY WAVES FROM LARGE VOLCANIC EXPLOSIONS (VEI 4-6)
17.2.1 Near-Field Waveforms of the Long-Period Acoustic Waves
17.2.2 Far-Field Registrations of the Long-Period Acoustic Waves
17.2.2.1 Far-Field Signals of Acoustic Waves
17.2.2.2 Far-Field Signals of Acoustic-Gravity Waves
17.3 ACOUSTIC WAVES PRODUCED BY THE LAVA DOME COLLAPSE AND THE PROPAGATION OF PYROCLASTIC FLOW AND ROCKFALLS
17.3.2 Pyroclastic Flow Propagation
17.3.2.1 Observations in Near Zone
17.3.2.2 Distant Observations
17.3.3 Large Rockfall Propagation
17.4 ACOUSTIC WAVES PRODUCED DURING VOLCANIC MICROEARTHQUAKE SWARMS (“DRUMBEATS”)
17.5 UTILITY OF THE ACOUSTIC SIGNALS FOR VOLCANO ACTIVITY MONITORING
17.5.1 Estimation of the Energy of Eruptive Events
17.5.1.1 Large Explosions
17.5.1.2 Small Explosions
17.5.1.3 Pyroclastic Flows
17.5.2 Reconstruction of the Process of Dome Collapses and Pyroclastic Flow Movement
17.5.3 Monitoring of Phreatic and Strombolian Explosions
18 - Seismic Monitoring of Volcanic Activity and Forecasting of Volcanic Eruptions
18.1 METHODOLOGY OF SEISMIC MONITORING OF VOLCANIC ACTIVITY
18.1.1 Seismic Networks Around Volcanoes
18.1.2 Application of the Seismic Arrays for Study of Volcanic Seismicity
18.1.3 Initial Processing of Seismic Data
18.1.4 Automatic Classification of the Seismic Signals
18.1.4.1 A Supervised Neural System
18.1.4.2 A HMM-Based Seismic-Event Recognition System
18.1.5 Location of Seismic Events
18.2 APPLICATIONS OF VOLCANIC SEISMICITY TO THE FORECASTING OF VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS AND PREDICTING OF VOLCANIC HAZARDS
18.2.1 Methods Based on the Statistical Variations in the Parameters of Volcano-Tectonic Earthquakes
18.2.2 Chronicle of Some Forecasting of Volcanic Eruptions Based on Seismic Monitoring
18.2.2.1 The July 6, 1975 Eruption of New Tolbachik Volcanoes
18.2.2.2 Forecasting of the June 15, 1991 Large Explosions of Mount Pinatubo, Philippines
18.2.2.3 Forecasting of the November 20, 1998 Summit Eruption of Volcán de Colima, Mexico
18.2.2.4 The March 31, 2000 Lateral Eruption of Usu Volcano, Hokkaido
18.2.2.5 Forecasting of the October 1, 2004 Volcanic Eruption at Mount St. Helens, Cascades, and the Prediction of Associated Volcan ...
19 - Seismic Activity at Dormant Volcanic Structures: A Problem of Failed Eruption
19.1 FAILED ERUPTIONS: CASE STORIES
19.1.1 Failed Eruptions at Large Calderas
19.1.1.1 Long Valley Swarms
19.1.1.2 Campi Flegrei Swarms
19.1.2 Failed Eruptions at Stratovolcanoes
19.1.2.1 Matsushiro Swarms
19.1.3 Failed Eruptions in Rift Settings
19.1.3.1 Icelandic Rift Zone Swarm
19.1.3.2 Arabian Rift Zone Swarm
19.2 MODELING OF MAGMA ASCENT RESISTING
19.2.1 Experimental Study of the Ascent of a Fixed Magma Volume
19.2.2 Arrest of Propagating Dyke Due to Mechanical Barriers and Density Stratification in an Upper Crustal Horizon
19.3 MONITORING OF THE SEISMIC ACTIVITY AT DORMANT VOLCANOES
19.3.1 Monitoring of Andesitic and Dacitic Dormant Volcanoes
19.3.2 Monitoring of Basaltic Dormant Volcanoes
19.3.2.1 Reawakening of Basaltic Volcano
19.3.2.2 Birth of New Volcanoes
19.3.2.3 Dyke Injections Along Rift Zones
19.3.2.4 Possible Scenarios for Monitoring of Basaltic Dormant Volcanoes
20 - The Seismic Signals Associated With the Natural Seismicity of Geothermal Structures Within Volcanic Environment
20.1 GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF GEOTHERMAL SYSTEMS
20.1.1 Position of Geothermal Systems Within Volcanic Environment
20.1.2 Structure of Geothermal Systems
20.2 NATURAL SEISMICITY ASSOCIATED WITH HEAT DISCHARGE WITHIN GEOTHERMAL SYSTEMS
20.2.1 Diffusive Heat Discharge (Mud Volcano)
20.2.1.1 Newborn Lusi Mud Volcano, Indonesia
20.2.1.2 Dormant Dashgil Mud Volcano, Azerbaijan
20.2.2 Continuous Heat Discharge
20.2.2.1 Dallol, Ethiopia
20.2.2.3 Satsuma-Iwojima, Japan
20.2.3 Intermittent Heat Discharge
20.2.3.1 Fountain Geyser Strokkur, Iceland
20.2.3.2 Columnar Geyser Old Faithful, Yellowstone
20.2.3.3 Columnar Geyser Lone Star, Yellowstone
20.3 COMPARISON OF THE SEISMIC SIGNALS ASSOCIATED WITH HYDROTHERMAL AND VOLCANIC ACTIVITY
Introduction to Volcanic Seismology
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