Chapter
1.2.1.3. Case 3: An Oil Biorefinery Producing Biodiesel, Glycerin, and Protein From Microalgae by a Biochemical Route
1.2.1.4. Case 4: An Oil/C5/C6 Biorefinery Producing Biodiesel, Glycerin, Protein and Succinic Acid From Microalgae Using a ...
1.2.1.5. Case 5: A Synthesis Gas Biorefinery Producing Biomethane and Fertilizer From Oil Palm Empty Fruit Bunches Using a ...
1.2.2. Main Platforms of Biorefineries
Lignocellulosic agricultural crops
Agricultural and forestry residues
Fractionation and saccharification of lignocellulosic feedstocks
1.2.2.3. Bio-syngas Platform
Influence of the biomass characteristics
Temperature and other influential operating factors
Gasification technologies
Reduction of inorganic compounds
1.2.2.4. Pyrolysis Liquid Platform
1.2.2.5. Bio-oil Platform
1.2.3. Products of Biorefineries
1.2.3.2. Chemical Products
1.3. Revisiting the Classification System-Goals and Scopes of Biorefineries
1.4. Inclusion of Sustainability in the Classification System
1.4.1. Sustainability Criteria
1.4.1.1. Environmental Sustainability
1.4.1.2. Economic Sustainability
1.4.1.3. Social Sustainability
1.4.2. Defining Sustainability Classes Using a Logic Based Model
1.4.2.1. Modeling Economic Sustainability of Biorefineries
1.4.2.2. Modeling Social Sustainability of Biorefineries
1.4.2.3. Modeling Environmental Sustainability of Biorefineries
1.4.4. Illustration of Sustainability Potentials
1.5. Inclusion of Flexibility
1.5.1. Strategic Flexibility
1.5.1.1. Cost Reductions Due to Mutualization
1.5.1.2. Positive Environmental and Social Externalities
1.5.1.3. Capability Reward
1.5.2. Operational Flexibility
1.6. The Rationale of Public and Private Incentives: The Role of Classification
1.7. Conclusions and Perspectives
Chapter 2: Fundamentals of Life Cycle Assessment and Specificity of Biorefineries
2.1. Life Cycle Assessment: From Infancy to a Standardized Methodology
2.2. Definition of the Goal and Scope
2.2.2.1. Function of the Product System and Functional Unit
2.2.2.2. Description of the Product System
2.2.2.3. The Boundary of the System
2.2.2.4. Procedures of Allocation
2.2.3. Specificity of Biorefineries With Regard to the Goal and Scope
2.2.3.1. The Context of Biorefineries
2.2.3.2. Beyond Allocation and System Expansion: A Claiming-Based Approach
2.2.3.3. Illustration of the Claiming-Based Allocation
2.2.4. Choices of Impact Categories
2.3. Life Cycle Inventory
2.3.1. Aim of Life Cycle Inventory
2.3.4. Average Versus Marginal or IncrementalData
2.3.6.1. Ecoinvent Inventory Database
2.3.6.2. GaBi LCI Database
2.3.7. Data Inventory From Simulation
2.4. Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA)
2.4.1. Importance of the LCIA
2.4.2. Selection of the Impact Categories
2.4.3. Selection of Characterization Models, Classification and Characterization
2.4.3.1. General Considerations on Characterization
Step 1: Model of radiative forcing used in ReCiPe
Step 2: Estimation of the temperature factor in ReCiPe
Step 3A: Estimation of damage to human health in ReCiPe
Step 3B: Estimation of damage to ecosystem in ReCiPe
2.4.4. Nonmandatory Elements of LCIA
2.6. Imprecision, Uncertainties and Meaningfulness in LCA
2.6.1. General Considerations on Imprecision and Uncertainty
2.6.2. Different Sources of Imprecision and Uncertainty in LCA
2.6.3. Handling of Imprecision and Uncertainty in LCA
2.7. Extension of Environmental Life Cycle Assessment
2.7.1. General Considerations on Extension of Environmental Life Cycle Assessment
2.7.2. Life Cycle Costing
2.7.3. Social Life Cycle Assessment
2.7.4. Organizational Life Cycle Assessment
2.8. Conclusion and Perspectives
Chapter 3: Life-Cycle Assessment of Agricultural Feedstock for Biorefineries
3.1.1. Biomass Feedstock Supply as a Key Component in the LCA of Biorefineries
3.1.2. A Typology of Biomass Feedstocks According to Their Environmental Performance
3.1.3. A Generic Framework for the LCA of Agricultural Feedstocks
3.2. Agricultural Residues
3.2.1. Assessing Feedstock Availability Taking Into Account Soil Carbon Stocks and Competing Usages
3.2.2. LCA Methodological Issues for Agricultural Residues
3.2.3. A Case Study for Two Regions of France (Burgundy and Picardy)
3.3.1. First-Generation Biofuel Feedstocks
3.3.2. Main Methodological Issues With LCA: N2O Emissions and Byproduct Handling
3.3.3. A Regional Approach to the LCA of Biodiesel From Oilseed Rape in France
3.3.4. Lignocellulosic Biomass From Purpose-Grown Crops
3.3.5. Main Methodological Issues With LCA for Lignocellulosic Feedstocks
3.3.6. An Example on Miscanthus Supply in Burgundy (France)
3.4. Overall Comparison of Feedstocks and Land-Use Change Effects
3.5. Conclusions and Perspectives
Chapter 4: Life Cycle Assessment of Sugar Cropsand Starch-Based Integrated Biorefineries
4.2. Objectives and Scope
4.3.1. The Processing of Sugarcane
4.3.1.1. Simulation of an Ethanol Distillery
4.3.1.2. Simulation of a Sugar Mill
4.3.2. The Processing of Sugarcane Bagasse
4.3.3. Process Simulation Results
4.3.4. The Processing of Wheat
4.4.1. Goal and Scope Definition, System Boundaries
4.4.5. Allocation Method and Value-Based Approach
4.4.6. Inventory Analysis, Impact Assessment and Interpretation
4.4.8.1. Techno-Economic Analysis
4.4.8.2. Life Cycle Analysis
4.4.8.3. Results of Starch-Based Biorefinery
4.5. Conclusions and Perspectives
Appendix. Combustion performance of 1 MJ of lignocellulosic feedstock (bagasse)
Chapter 5: Life Cycle Assessment of Vetiver-Based Biorefinery With Production of Bioethanol and Furfural
5.2.1. Bioethanol Production From Vetiver
5.2.2. Bioethanol and Furfural Production From Vetiver
5.2.3. Gasoline Production From CrudeOil
5.2.4. Furfural Production From Vetiver
5.3. Experiments and Data Inventory
5.3.2. Functional Unit and System Boundary
5.3.3. Vetiver Cultivation and CarbonStock
5.3.4. Energy Requirements and Enzyme Impact Data
5.3.5. Furfural Production Data
5.3.6. Impact Assessment Method, Impact Categories, and Sensitivity Analysis
5.4. Life Cycle Assessment
5.5. Conclusions and Perspectives
Chapter 6: Life Cycle Assessment of Thermochemical Conversion of Empty Fruit Bunch of Oil Palm to Bio-Methane
6.2. Hydrothermal Gasification: Process Design
6.2.1. General Considerations of Hydrothermal Gasification
6.2.2. Hydrothermal Gasification
6.2.3. Model Implementation
6.3. Life Cycle Inventory
6.3.1. Goal, Functional Unit, and Scope of the Study
6.3.3. Reference System Definition
6.4.1. Assessment With Economic Allocation of EFB Fruits
6.4.2. Assessment With Energetic Allocation of EFB Fruits
6.4.3. Assessment With EFB Considered as a Waste
6.4.4. Comparison Between Different Final End Use Scenarios of Oil Palm
6.5. Conclusions and Perspectives
Chapter 7: Life Cycle Assessment of Algal Biorefinery
7.2.1. Microalgae Cultivation and Harvesting
7.2.2. Oil Extraction and Transesterification
7.2.3. Algae Protein and Succinic Acid Production
7.2.4. Diesel, Soy Protein and Succinic Acid (Conventional) Production
7.2.5. Coproducts Handling
7.3. Life Cycle Inventory
7.4. Sensitivity Analysis
7.6. Conclusions and Perspectives
Chapter 8: Life Cycle Assessment and Land-Use Changes: Effectiveness and Limitations
8.2.1. Direct Land-Use Change
8.2.2. Indirect Land-Use Change
8.3. Complexity of LUC Mechanisms
8.4. Monitoring: Use of Historical Data and Statistical Analysis
8.5. Expert-Based Opinions
8.6. Economic Equilibrium Models
8.6.1. Partial Equilibrium Models
8.6.2. General Equilibrium Models
8.7. Accuracy of Biofuels Chains LCAs: Importance of Accounting for LUC Effects
8.8. Conclusions and Perspectives
Chapter 9: Modeling Land-Use Change Effects of Biofuel Policies: Coupling Economic Models and LCA
9.1.2. Market-Mediated LUC Induced by Biofuel Policies
9.1.3. The Economic-Spatial-Consequential LCA Approach to LUC GHG Emissions
9.2. Main Economic Models
9.3. Main Coupling Approaches
9.4. Typical Implementation and Results
9.5. Implementation in Biofuels Policy and Regulation
9.6. Conclusions and Perspectives
Annex 9.1. Selected Model Applications to Assess the LUC Effects of Biofuel Policies
Chapter 10: Towards an Integrated Sustainability Assessment of Biorefineries
10.2. Sustainability Definition
10.3.1. Lack of Locational Context
10.3.2. Accounting for Economic and Social Factors
10.4. Other Environmental Issues
10.4.4. Absolute and Permanent Environmental Impact
10.6.1. Jobs and Regional Development
10.6.2. Social Disempowerment
10.6.4. Miscellaneous Social Issues
10.7. Multicriteria and Multiactor Assessment
10.7.1. Mathematical Programming Models
10.7.2. Hierarchical Normalization Methods
10.7.3. Outranking Methods
10.7.4. Assessment Involving Multiple Actors
10.8. Assessment Perspectives and Development
10.8.1. Energy Recovery and Investment (EROEI)
10.8.3. Certification Schemes
10.8.4. Characterization of Sustainability Assessments
10.8.5. Framework for Integrated Sustainability Assessment
10.9. Conclusions and Perspectives
Life-Cycle Assessment of Biorefineries
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