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Membrane Characterization

Membrane Characterization

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Contents

List of Contributors

About the Editors

Preface

1 - Spectroscopy Methods for Membrane Characterization

1 - Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) Spectroscopy

1. Introduction

2. FTIR Principle and Analysis Process

3. Sample Preparation Methods

4. Techniques of Sample Handling

5. Membrane Surface Functionalization Monitoring by FTIR

5.1 Blending and Coating Approach

5.2 Chemical Treatment

5.3 Plasma Treatment

5.4 Surface Grafting

5.5 Enzyme Immobilization

5.6 Nanostructured Fillers

5.7 Ultraviolet Induced-Modification

6. Stability and Durability Monitoring in Various Membrane Application by FTIR

6.1 Water and Wastewater Treatment

6.2 Gas Separation

6.3 Fuel Cell

7. Conclusion

References

2 - Raman Spectroscopy

1. Introduction

2. Principle of Raman Spectroscopy

3. Raman Spectroscopy for Polymer Characterization

4. Raman Spectroscopy for Polymeric Membrane Characterization

4.1 Polymeric Membrane Formation

4.2 Polymeric Fuel Cell Membranes

4.3 Polymeric Composite Membrane With Additives/Fillers

4.4 Polymeric Membrane Antifouling Strategy

5. Conclusion

List of Abbreviation

References

3 - Electron Paramagnetic Resonance (EPR) Spectroscopy

1. Introduction

2. Fundamentals of EPR

2.1 Principle of Electron Paramagnetic Resonance

2.2 Electron Spin and Magnetic Moment

2.3 Hyperfine Coupling

2.4 Block Diagram of EPR Spectrometer

2.5 Spin-Labeling Method

3. EPR Applications for the Synthetic Polymeric Membranes

3.1 EPR Applications at the University of Ottawa

3.2 Applications of EPR to Study Fouling of RO and UF Membranes

4. Other Examples of EPR Applications

4.1 Aging of Proton Exchange Membranes

4.2 Study of Carbon Nanotubes

4.3 Metal Organic Frameworks

4.4 State of Interfacial Water

5. Conclusions

References

4 - Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Spectroscopy

1. Introduction

2. Basics of NMR Spectroscopy

3. Prediction of Molecular Structure, Blend Miscibility, Phase Morphology of the Polymers

4. Determination of Pore Structure and Pore Radius of the Polymeric Membrane

5. Determination of Stability and Degradation of Polymeric Membranes

6. Conclusion

List of Abbreviations

List of Symbols

Acknowledgments

References

5 - X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS)

1. Introduction

2. Basics of XPS

2.1 XPS Spectral Analysis

3. Determination of Atomic Concentration in Polymer Membranes

4. Prediction of Crosslinking and Hydrophilicity of the Polymer Membranes

5. Conclusion

Acknowledgments

References

6 - Small-Angle Scattering Techniques (SAXS/SANS)

1. Introduction

2. Analysis of Small-Angle Scattering Profile

3. Scattering Profile of Cross-Linked Polymer

4. Study of the TFC Membrane

5. Small-Angle Scattering From Dilute Polymer Solution or Colloidal Solution Systems

6. Probing Polymer–Nanoparticle Interaction in Dilute Solution

7. Structure of Polymer Nanocomposite Membrane

8. Understanding Form and Structure Factor in Rubbery Polydimethylsiloxane Membrane

9. Conclusions

References

2 - Microscopy Methods for Membrane Characterization

7 - Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM)

1. Introduction

2. AFM Imaging Modes

2.1 Contact Mode

2.2 Tapping Mode (Intermittent Contact) Mode

2.3 Noncontact Mode

3. Interaction Force Measurements

4. Membrane Surface Imaging and Characterization

4.1 Measurement of Roughness of Membrane Surfaces

4.2 Measurement of Surface Pore Size and Pore Size Distribution

4.3 Use of AFM in the Modification and Development of Separation Membranes

5. Fouling Characterization of Filtration Membranes Using AFM

6. Concluding Remarks

References

8 - Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM)

1. Introduction

2. Basics of TEM

3. Bright-Field and Dark-Field Images

3.1 Diffraction

3.2 Crystal Structure and Elemental Information

4. Specimen Preparation

4.1 Basics of RO Membrane Structure

4.2 Specimen of Membrane Building Blocks

4.3 Specimen of RO Membrane

5. Characterization of Membrane Building Block

6. Membrane Characterization

6.1 Cross-Section and Tomography of RO TFC Membrane

6.2 Membrane Fouling

7. Conclusion

List of Abbreviations

List of Symbols

References

9 - Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and Energy-Dispersive X-Ray (EDX) Spectroscopy

1. Introduction

2. Fundamentals of Electron Microscopy

2.1 Principles of SEM

2.2 Principles of FESEM

2.3 Principles of Energy Dispersive X-Ray Spectroscopy

3. Applications in Membrane Characterization

3.1 Ceramic Membrane

3.2 Polymeric Membrane

3.3 Carbon Membrane

4. Conclusion

References

3 - Physical and Chemical Characterization Methods for Membrane Characterization

10 - Pore Size Measurements and Distribution for Ceramic Membranes

1. Introduction

2. Typical Method for Pore Size Measurements and Distribution

2.1 Gas Adsorption/Desorption Isotherms

2.2 Permporometry

2.3 Mercury Porosimetry

2.4 Thermoporometry

2.5 Bubble Point Method

2.6 Liquid Displacement Method

3. Comparisons Between Measurements

4. Conclusion

Notation

Greek Letters

Subscripts

References

11 - The Bubble Gas Transport Method

1. Introduction

2. Principle of Bubble Gas Transport Method

2.1 Bubble Gas Transport Method

2.2 Bubble Gas Transport With Gas Permeation

3. Experimental Setup and Procedure

4. Critical Aspects of Bubble Gas Transport Method

5. Conclusion

Abbreviations and Symbols

Abbreviations

Symbols

References

12 - Contact Angle Measurements

1. Introduction

2. Theoretical Background

2.1 Contact Angle—Young's Equation

2.2 Contact Angle Hysteresis

2.3 The Wenzel Equation

2.4 The Cassie Equation

3. Method of Contact Angle Measurement

3.1 Sessile Drop Technique

3.2 Captive Bubble Method

3.3 Wilhelmy Plate Method

3.4 Capillary Rise at a Vertical Plate

4. Factors Affecting Contact Angle Measurements

4.1 Roughness Factor

4.2 Analyzing the “True” Apparent Contact Angle

4.3 Heterogeneity Factor

4.4 The Effect of Particle Shape and Size

5. Hydrophilicity/Hydrophobicity Analysis

6. The Membrane Characterization by Contact Angle

6.1 Contact Angle and Permeation

6.2 Contact Angle and Membrane Modification

6.2.1 Effect of Organic Additives

6.2.2 Effect of Inorganic Additives

6.3 Contact Angle and Antifouling Properties

7. Conclusion

List of Symbols

Acknowledgments

References

4 - Mechanical Properties Characterization of Membranes

13 - Mechanical Characterization of Membranes

1. Introduction

2. Mechanical Characterization Techniques

2.1 Uniaxial Tensile Test

2.2 Bending Test

2.3 Dynamic Mechanical Analysis

2.4 Nanoindentation

2.5 Bursting Test

3. Mechanical Degradation of Polymeric Membranes

3.1 Fouling Induced Mechanical Degradation

3.2 Chemical Cleaning Induced Mechanical Degradation

3.3 Membranes Delamination

4. Stress-State of Polymeric Membrane Under Actual Condition

4.1 Flat Sheet Membranes

4.2 Hollow Fiber Membranes

5. Advanced Techniques for Mechanical Properties Testing

5.1 Environmental Effects on the Mechanical Properties of Membranes

5.2 Membrane Fatigue Behavior

5.3 Real-Time Micromechanical Investigations

6. Conclusions

List of Abbreviations

References

5 - Mass Transport, Modeling and Feed Solution Characterization

14 - Gas and Vapor Transport in Membranes

1. Introduction

2. Gas and Vapor Transport in Membranes

2.1 Porous Membrane

2.2 Nonporous Membrane

3. Application

3.1 Gas Separation

3.2 Pervaporation

3.3 Reverse Osmosis

4. Conclusion

List of Abbreviations

List of Symbols

References

15 - Mass Transport in Porous Liquid Phase Membranes

1. Introduction

2. Mass Transfer From the Bulk Feed to the Membrane Surface

3. Separation of Solutes at the Membrane Surface

4. Transport of Solutes Through the Membrane

5. Solute Transfer From the Membrane Interface to the Bulk Permeate

6. Liquid Phase Membrane Applications

7. Conclusions

References

16 - The Use of Modeling for Characterization of Membranes

1. Introduction

2. Background Information

3. Simple Models for Basic Membrane Characterization

4. Advanced Models for Structural and Electrical Properties Characterization

5. Conclusions

References

17 - Feed Solution Characterization

1. Introduction

2. Particle Size and Shape

2.1 The Particle Size Conundrum and Equivalent Sphere Concept

2.2 Basic Statistics

2.3 Number and Volume Distributions

3. Methods of Particle Size Measurement

3.1 Characterization of Particle Size by Light Scattering

3.1.1 Laser Diffraction

3.1.2 Dynamic Light Scattering

4. Particle Charge and Zeta Potential

4.1 pH Titration

4.2 Electrophoresis

4.2.1 Isoelectric Point (i.e.p.)

5. Viscosity

5.1 Viscosity Experiments

6. Conclusions

References

18 - Electrokinetic Phenomena for Membrane Charge

1. Introduction

2. Electrophoresis

3. Electro-Osmosis

4. Sedimentation Potential

5. Streaming Potential

5.1 Transversal Streaming Potential

5.2 Tangential Streaming Potential

6. Conclusions

References

Index

A

B

C

D

E

F

G

H

I

K

L

M

N

O

P

Q

R

S

T

U

V

W

X

Y

Z

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