Chapter
2.2.1 The composition of bioactive glasses
2.2.1.1 Silicate bioactive glass
2.2.1.2 Borate bioactive glass
2.2.1.3 Phosphate bioactive glass
2.2.2 The preparation of bioactive glasses methods
2.2.2.1 Melt-derived methods
2.2.3 Applications of bioactive glasses in oral and maxillofacial region
2.3.1 Osteoinductivity of CPs
2.3.2 Chemical properties of CPs
2.3.2.1 Hydroxyapatite (HA)
2.3.2.2 Tricalcium phosphate
2.3.2.3 Amorphous calcium phosphate (ACP)
2.3.2.4 Biphasic calcium phosphate (BCP)
2.3.3 Clinical application of calcium phosphates in oral and maxillofacial tissue regeneration
3 Polymers for oral and dental tissue engineering
3.2 Different types of polymeric scaffolds
3.2.2 Naturally derived polymers
3.2.3 Composite scaffolds
3.2.4 Biomimetic scaffolds
3.2.4.1 Scaffolds with improved hydrophilicity
3.2.4.2 Scaffolds with improved bioactivity
3.3 Methods for scaffold fabrication
3.3.1 Conventional scaffold fabrication techniques
3.3.2 Recent Advances in Complex 3-D Scaffold Development
3.3.2.1 3-D Printing (3-DP)
3.3.2.2 Selective laser sintering (SLS)
3.3.2.3 Stereolithography (SLA)
3.3.2.4 Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM)
4 Hydrogels in craniofacial tissue engineering
4.2 Hydrogel biomaterials
4.2.1.4 Glycosaminoglycans
4.2.2 Synthetic hydrogels
4.2.2.2 Polyglycolic acid
4.2.2.3 Polypropylene fumarate
4.2.2.4 Polyethylene glycol
4.3 Summary: current status and future prospects
5.2 Classification of biocomposites
5.3 Natural biocomposites
5.4 Synthetic biocomposites
5.5 Unique properties and adaptability of biocomposites
5.6 Applications of biocomposites materials in dentistry
5.6.1 Oral and dental tissues engineering
5.7 Restorative applications
5.8.1 Autogenous bone grafts
5.9 Allogeneic bone grafts
5.12 Shortcomings of existing biocomposites and recent developments
6 Surface modification of dental implants
6.2 Surface treatment methods
6.2.1 Subtractive methods
6.2.1.3 Dual acid etching
6.2.1.4 Blasting and acid etching (SLA)
6.2.1.5 Anodized surface implants
6.2.1.6 Laser etching and microarc oxidation
6.2.2.1 Ceramic coating methods
6.2.2.2 Fluoride-modified surface
6.2.2.3 Biochemical and organic compound coating
6.3 Prospective surface modification methods
6.3.1 Discrete crystalline deposition (DCD)
6.3.3 Photofunctionalization
6.3.4 Extracellular matrix protein coating
6.3.6 Antisclerostin immunoglobulin coating
6.3.7 Organic compounds coatings
6.3.8 Nanotechnology coatings
7 Characterization of biomaterials
7.2 Chemical characterization techniques
7.2.1 Infrared spectroscopy
7.2.3 X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy
7.2.4 Ultraviolet–visible spectroscopy
7.2.5 Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy
7.3 Physical characterizations techniques
7.3.1 Scanning electron microscope
7.3.2 Transmission electron microscope
7.3.3 Atomic force microscope
7.3.5 Contact angle measurement
7.3.6 Mercury intrusion porosimetry
7.3.7 Gas adsorption measurements
7.4 Biological characterization technique
7.4.1 In vitro characterization
7.4.1.1 Cytotoxicity testing
7.4.1.2 Hemocompatibility testing
7.4.1.3 Genotoxicity and carcinogenicity testing
7.4.1.4 Reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction
7.4.2 In vivo characterization
7.4.2.1 Sensitization, irritation, and toxicity tests
7.4.2.2 Implantation testing
7.4.2.3 Biodegradation test
8 Biocompatibility of dental biomaterials
8.2 Concepts of biocompatibility testing
8.3.2 Mutagenicity and genotoxicity testing
8.3.3 Hemocompatibilty testing
8.4.1 Skin sensitization tests
8.4.2 Mucous membrane irritation tests
8.5.1 Dental pulp irritation tests
8.5.2 Mucosa and gingiva usage tests
8.5.3 Endodontic usage tests
8.6 Combining in vitro, animal, and usage tests together
8.7 Biomaterials for tissue engineering
8.7.1 Polymeric biomaterials
8.7.1.1 Natural origin polymers
8.7.1.1.1 Collagen/gelatin
8.7.1.1.2 Chitin/chitosan
8.7.1.1.3 Glycosaminoglycan
8.7.1.2 Synthetic polymers
8.7.1.2.1 Poly ethylene glycol and poly ethylene oxide
8.7.1.2.2 Poly-glycolic acid and poly-lactic acid
8.7.1.2.3 Poly(caprolactone)
8.7.1.2.4 Polyvinyl alcohol
8.7.1.2.5 Polypropylene fumarates
8.7.2 Ceramic biomaterials
8.7.2.2 Calcium phosphate (Ca-PO4)
9 Processing and preservation of biomaterials and regulatory issues
9.2 Processing of biomaterials
9.2.1 Animal and human-derived biomaterials
9.2.1.1 Soft tissue biomaterials
9.2.1.2 Hard tissue biomaterials
9.2.2 Other natural scaffolds and synthetic biomaterials
9.3 Sterilization of biomaterials
9.4 Preservation and storage
9.4.1 Cell-containing products
9.4.2 Acellular biomaterials
9.5.1 International regulations
9.5.2 United States regulatory agencies
9.5.3 European regulators
9.5.4 United Kingdom regulatory requirements
II. Tissue Engineering Strategies
10 Specific considerations in scaffold design for oral tissue engineering
10.2 Scaffold fabrication techniques
10.2.1 Solvent casting and leaching
10.2.5.1 Important principles and methods
10.2.5.2 Materials properties
10.2.5.3 The effect of parameters
10.2.6 Microsphere sintering
10.2.7 Additive manufacturing
10.2.8 Microfabrication approach
10.2.8.1 Soft lithography
10.2.8.3 Micromolding in microcapillaries
10.2.9 Self-assembly approach
10.3 Multi-tissue scaffolds for oral and dental regeneration
10.4 Applications of scaffolds in oral tissue engineering
11 Stem cells from oral and maxillofacial tissues
11.2 Types of stem cells extracted from oral and maxillofacial tissues dental pulp stem cells
11.2.1 Stem cells from human exfoliated deciduous teeth
11.2.2 Periodontal ligament stem cells
11.2.3 Stem cells from apical papilla
11.2.4 Dental follicle progenitor cells
11.3 Application of clinically relevant stem cells in oral and maxillofacial surgery
12 Bioreactor design for oral and dental tissue engineering
12.2 Fundamentals of bioreactors and bioreactor design
12.3 Different types of bioreactors
12.4 Application of bioreactors for tissue engineering of oral tissue
13 Growth factors for oral and maxillofacial regeneration applications
13.2 Platelet-derived growth factor
13.3 Insulin-like growth factors
13.4 Transforming growth factor beta
13.5 Bone morphogenic proteins
13.6 Platelet rich plasma
13.7 Vascular endothelial growth factor
III. Oral and Dental Soft Tissue Engineering
14 Oral mucosa tissue engineering
14.2 Normal human oral mucosa
14.3 Split-thickness oral mucosa engineering
14.4 Full-thickness oral mucosa engineering
14.4.1.1 Naturally derived scaffolds
14.4.1.1.1 Acellular dermis
14.4.1.1.2 Amniotic membrane
14.4.1.2 Fibroblast-populated skin substitutes
14.4.1.3 Collagen-based scaffolds
14.4.1.3.1 Pure collagen scaffolds
14.4.1.3.2 Compound collagen scaffolds
14.4.1.4 Gelatin-based scaffolds
14.4.1.5 Fibrin-based scaffolds
14.4.1.6 Synthetic scaffolds
14.4.1.7 Hybrid scaffolds
14.4.3 Culture environment
14.5 Applications of tissue-engineered oral mucosa
14.5.1 In vivo clinical applications
14.5.1.1 Intraoral grafting
14.5.1.2 Extraoral grafting
14.5.2 In vitro applications
14.5.2.1 Oral mucosal biocompatibility testing
15 Tissue-engineered models of oral soft tissue diseases
15.2 In vitro models of dysplasia and oral cancer
15.3 Tissue-engineered models of radiotherapy-induced oral mucositis
15.4 In vitro three-dimensional models of bisphosphonate and medication-related osteonecrosis
15.5 Imaging and spectroscopic diagnostic techniques
15.6 Oral candidiasis disease modeling
15.7 Oral mucosal models of bacterial infection
15.8 Immune response studies
15.9 Drug delivery systems
16 Periodontal soft tissue reconstruction
16.3 General considerations for biomaterials in periodontal soft tissue reconstruction
16.4.1 Acellular dermal matrix allograft
16.5 Xenogeneic materials
16.5.1 Extracellular matrix (ECM) membrane
16.5.2 Bilayer collagen matrix
16.6 Autogenous materials
16.6.1 Platelet-rich fibrin membrane
16.7.1 Living cellular construct
16.8 Alloplastic materials
16.8.1 Three-dimensional printing scaffolds
17 Layered scaffolds for periodontal regeneration
17.2 Structure of periodontium
17.3 Requirements of a layered scaffold for periodontal regeneration
17.4 Current solutions available
17.4.1 Fabrication methods
17.4.1.1 Individual layers
17.4.2 Biological evaluation
17.5 Conclusions, limitations, and recommendations to readers
18 Dental pulp tissue engineering and regenerative endodontic therapy
18.2.1 Vital pulp therapy
18.2.2 Nonvital pulp therapy
18.3 Regenerative endodontic procedures
18.3.1 Regenerative endodontic procedure in different apical cases
18.3.2 Key components of regenerative endodontic procedures
18.3.3 Clinical protocols of regenerative endodontics procedure
18.3.3.2 Intracanal medication
18.3.3.3 Intracanal barrier
19 Oral nerve tissue repair and regeneration
19.2 Peripheral neuroanatomy applicable to dentistry
19.3 Nerve tissue engineering principles
19.3.1 Traditional tissue engineering techniques
19.3.1.1 Extrusion and rapid prototyping
19.3.1.3 Porogen leaching
19.3.1.5 Phase separation
19.3.1.6 Injectable hydrogels
19.3.2 Nerve tissue engineering materials
19.3.2.1 Natural polymers
19.3.2.2 Synthetic polymers
19.3.2.3 Conductive polymers
19.4 Applicable stem cells in oral and maxillofacial nerve repair
19.5 Growth factors in oral and maxillofacial nerve repair
19.6 Clinical applications and future trends
20 Tissue engineering of salivary glands
20.2 Salivary gland function, anatomy, and histology
20.3 Salivary gland diseases and pathology
20.3.2 Sjogren’s syndrome
20.3.5 Medication-induced salivary gland dysfunction
20.4 Prevention and preservation of salivary glands
20.4.1 Organ-sparing radiotherapy
20.4.2 Preventative medication
20.4.3 Salivary gland tissue transfer
20.5 Tissue-engineering approaches
20.5.1 Cells and bioactive agents
20.5.2.1 Naturally derived scaffolds
20.5.2.2 Synthetic biomaterials
20.5.2.3 Hybrid scaffolds
20.6 Regeneration challenges
21 Facial muscle tissue engineering
21.2 Anatomy and structure of facial muscles
21.3 Tissue engineering approaches
21.6 Laboratory and clinical challenges
21.7 Conclusion/future trends
22.2 Craniofacial and dental tissue-engineering approaches
22.3 Clinical transplantation of engineered blood vessels
22.4 Current strategies to increment vascularization
22.4.1 Growth factor and cytokines
22.4.2 Mature and primary cell delivery
22.4.3 Vascular inductive scaffold
22.4.4 Decellularized matrix
22.5 Key challenges and future trend
IV. Oral and Dental Hard Tissue Engineering
23 Bone tissue engineering in maxillofacial region
23.2 Natural alveolar bone structure
23.3 Strategies for bone tissue engineering
23.4 Tissue-engineered bone
23.4.4 Environmental factors
23.5 Challenges in bone tissue engineering
24 Periodontal and peri-implant hard tissue regeneration
24.2 Conventional approaches
24.2.1 Dental prosthesis and preprosthetic surgery
24.2.2 Anatomic repositioning
24.2.2.1 Distraction osteoogenesis (gradual repositioning)
24.2.2.2 Inlay bone grafting (acute repositioning)
24.2.2.3 Inferior alveolar nerve lateralization
24.2.3 Bone augmentation techniques
24.2.3.1 Socket preservation
24.2.3.2 Sinus augmentation
24.2.3.3 Guided bone regeneration
24.2.3.4 Onlay bone grafting
24.3.1 Mesenchymal stem cells in preprosthetic hard tissue engineering
24.3.2 Mesenchymal stem cells in peri-implant hard tissue engineering
24.3.3 Coapplication of mesenchymal stem cells with growth factors
24.4 Conclusion and future direction
25 Regeneration concerns in craniofacial cartilage and bone defects
25.2 Tissue engineering bone grafts
25.2.1 Scaffolds for bone and cartilage tissue engineering
25.2.2 Cell sources for bone and cartilage tissue engineering
25.3 Craniofacial tissue engineering approaches
25.3.1 Tissue-engineered bone grafts
25.3.2 Tissue-engineered cartilage grafts for cartilage craniofacial features
25.4 Conclusions/future trends
26 Craniofacial surgery, orthodontics, and tissue engineering
26.4 Alveolar bone defects, current, and future repairing techniques
26.5 Periodontal ligament tissue engineering
26.6 Low-intensity pulsed ultrasound
26.6.1 Mechanical action of low-intensity pulsed ultrasound
26.6.2 Clinical use of low-intensity pulsed ultrasound in orthodontics
26.6.3 Low-intensity pulsed ultrasound conclusions
27 Tooth tissue engineering
27.2 Biological structure of teeth
27.3 Developmental process of tooth formation
27.4 Triad of tooth tissue engineering
27.4.1 Cells: The first element
27.4.1.1 Postnatal and embryonic dental cells
27.4.1.2 Stem cells from dental and nondental tissues
27.4.1.2.1 Adult stem cells
27.4.1.2.2 Embryonic stem cells
27.4.1.2.3 Induced pluripotent stem cells
27.4.2 Scaffolds in tissue engineering of teeth
27.4.2.1 Synthetic materials
27.4.2.2 Natural materials
27.4.3.1 Platelet-derived growth factor
27.4.3.2 Bone morphogenetic proteins
27.4.3.3 Transforming growth factors
27.4.3.4 Insulin-like growth factor
27.5 Whole teeth regeneration: Recent strategies and techniques
27.6 Future trends and concluding remarks
28 Pharmacological agents for bone remodeling: An experimental approach
28.2.2 Calcium homeostasis
28.2.3 Calcium absorption and bone density
28.2.4 Calcium in the experimental bone remodeling
28.3.2 Pharmacological properties
28.3.3 Clinical applications of vitamin D compounds
28.3.4 Specific characteristics
28.3.5 Vitamin D in the experimental bone remodeling
28.4.2 Pharmacological properties
28.4.3 Prostaglandins antagonists
28.4.4 Prostaglandin E2 in the experimental bone remodeling
28.5.1 Pharmacological properties
28.5.2 Thyroid hormone in the experimental bone remodeling
28.6.1 Pharmacological properties
28.6.2 Gonadal hormones in the experimental bone remodeling
28.7 Fibroblast growth factor
28.7.1 Pharmacological properties
28.7.2 Fibroblast growth factor in the experimental bone remodeling
28.8 Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (ibuprofen, aspirin) and acetaminophen
28.8.1 Pharmacological properties
28.8.2 Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (ibuprofen and aspirin) and acetaminophen in the experimental bone remodeling
28.9 Bisphosphonates (pamidronic acid, zoledronic acid)
28.9.1 Pharmacological properties
28.9.2 Bisphosphonates (pamidronate, zoledronate) in the experimental bone remodeling
Biomaterials for Oral and Dental Tissue Engineering
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