Chapter
1.4 ULTRASONIC ATOMIZATION
2 - Advances in Thermo- and Manothermosonication for Microbial Inactivation
2.2 MICROBIAL INACTIVATION BY ULTRASOUND
2.2.2 Inactivation of Microorganisms by Ultrasound
2.2.2.2 Effects of Ultrasound
2.3 MICROBIAL INACTIVATION BY THERMOSONICATION
2.4 MICROBIAL INACTIVATION BY MANOSONICATION AND MANOTHERMOSONICATION
2.5 THE EFFECTS OF ULTRASOUND ON OTHER AGENTS
3 - Hurdle Technology Using Ultrasound for Food Preservation
3.2 MOST COMMONLY USED HURDLE COMBINATIONS INVOLVING ULTRASOUND
3.2.1 Use of Traditional Hurdles
3.2.2 Use of Ultrasound Combined With Novel Hurdles
3.2.2.1 Light-Based Technologies
3.2.2.2 Pulsed Electric Fields (PEFs)
3.2.2.3 High Hydrostatic Pressure (HHP)
3.2.2.4 Ultrasound Combined With Other Hurdles
3.2.3 Effects of Ultrasound-Based Combined Technologies on Food Quality Indicators
3.2.4 Drawbacks and Future Challenges
4 - Advances in Thermosonication for the Inactivation of Endogenous Enzymes in Foods
4.3 ULTRASOUND PROCESSING OF FOOD
4.3.1 Ultrasound Fundamentals
4.3.2 Ultrasound Effect on Enzymes
4.3.3 Models for Describing Enzyme Inactivation by Ultrasound Processing
4.3.3.1 Simple First-Order Linear Model
4.3.3.2 First-Order Biphasic Model
4.3.3.3 Temperature Dependence of k and D Values
4.4 EFFECTS OF THERMOSONICATION ON FRUIT AND VEGETABLE PRODUCTS PECTIN METHYLESTERASE (PME) AND POLYGALACTURONASE (PG)
4.4.1 PME and PG Effects on Foods
4.4.2 Residual Activity After Manothermosonication, Thermosonication, and Ultrasound
4.4.3 Thermosonication Inactivation Kinetics and Parameters
4.5 EFFECTS OF THERMOSONICATION ON FRUIT AND VEGETABLE PRODUCTS POLYPHENOL OXIDASE (PPO)
4.5.1 PO Browning in Foods
4.5.2 Residual Activity After Thermosonication Treatment
4.5.3 First-Order Kinetic Parameters for Thermosonication Inactivation
4.6 EFFECTS OF THERMOSONICATION ON FRUIT AND VEGETABLE PRODUCTS PEROXIDASE (POD)
4.6.1 POD Effects on Food and Blanching
4.6.2 Residual Activity and Modeling
4.7 EFFECTS OF MILK THERMOSONICATION ON ENDOGENOUS ENZYMES
5 - Sonochemistry of Foods
5.2 SONOCHEMISTRY AND CAVITATION
5.2.2 Cavitation in a Homogeneous Liquid System (Water)
5.2.3 Cavitation in Heterogeneous Systems
5.3 HIGH-FREQUENCY, LOW-POWER ULTRASOUND
6 - Dairy Products Processed With Ultrasound
6.2 ANALYTICAL APPLICATIONS OF LOW-POWER ULTRASOUND
6.3 EFFECTS OF ULTRASOUND ON PARTICLE SIZE: HOMOGENIZATION, CREAMING, AND EMULSIONS
6.4 ULTRASOUND PROCESSING AND FOAMING OF MILK AND DAIRY INGREDIENTS
6.5 FILTRATION IMPROVEMENTS BY ULTRASOUND
6.6 ULTRASOUND AND FOULING REMOVAL
6.7 USE OF ULTRASOUND FOR MICROBIAL AND ENZYMATIC ACTIVITY REDUCTION
6.7.1 Microbial Reduction by Sonication
6.7.2 Treatment of Sporeformers by Ultrasound
6.7.3 Effect of Ultrasound on Enzyme Activity
6.8 ULTRASOUND AS AN AID FOR CRYSTALLIZATION
6.9 ULTRASOUND AND ITS EFFECTS ON DAIRY PROTEIN FUNCTIONALITY
6.10 ULTRASOUND FOR MODIFICATION OF PROPERTIES IN DAIRY PRODUCTS
7 - Ultrasound Processing of Fruit and Vegetable Juices
7.1 PROCESSING JUICES USING ULTRASOUND
7.2 EFFECTS ON JUICE STRUCTURE AND PHYSICAL AND TECHNOLOGICAL PROPERTIES
7.2.1 Ultrasound and Juice Structure
7.2.2 Rheological Properties and Texture
7.2.3 Sedimentation Stability: Cloud Retention
7.2.5 Effects on Microorganisms
7.4 EFFECTS ON VEGETABLE AND FRUIT JUICE CONSTITUENTS: BIOACTIVE COMPOUNDS, POLYSACCHARIDES, AND PROTEINS
7.4.1 Bioactive Compounds
7.5 INDUSTRIAL PERSPECTIVES AND COMMERCIAL USE
8 - Fresh Produce Treated by Power Ultrasound
8.2 POWER ULTRASOUND TREATMENT EQUIPMENT
8.2.1 Principles of Ultrasonic Surface Cleaning
8.2.2 Power Ultrasound Produce Treatment Setup
8.2.2.2 Ultrasonic Tank or Bath System
8.2.2.3 Large-Scale Ultrasonic Washer and Means to Improve Treatment Uniformity
8.3 ULTRASOUND TREATMENT TO ENHANCE PRODUCE SAFETY
8.3.1 Use of Probe Systems
8.3.2 Use of Tank and Large-Scale Units
8.4 ULTRASOUND TREATMENT AND PRODUCE QUALITY
8.4.1 Produce Quality After Ultrasound Treatment
8.4.2 Ultrasound Treatment to Enhance Produce Quality
9 - Ultrasound Processing and Food Quality
9.2 EFFECTS ON FOOD QUALITY
9.2.1.1 Color and Cloudiness
9.2.1.2 Rheological Properties
9.2.2.1 Curing and Tenderization
9.2.2.2 Ultrasound-Assisted Freezing
9.2.2.3 Ultrasound-Assisted Drying
10 - Physical Properties of Sonicated Products: A New Era for Novel Ingredients
10.2 INFLUENCE OF ULTRASOUND ON THE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF FOOD
10.2.1 Proteins and Particle Size Reduction
10.2.4 Extraction for Novel Ingredients
10.2.5 Improved Sonication Processes
11 - Removal of Allergens in Some Food Products Using Ultrasound
11.1.1 Types of Food Allergy
11.1.2 Prevalence of Food Allergy
11.1.3 Detection of Food Allergens
11.2 EFFECTS OF ULTRASOUND IN FOOD ALLERGEN REDUCTION
11.2.4 Shrimp and Crustaceans
12 - Food Freezing Assisted With Ultrasound
12.2 MECHANISMS AND DEVICES OF ULTRASOUND-ASSISTED FREEZING
12.2.1 Acoustic Mechanisms of UAF
12.2.1.1 Primary Nucleation
12.2.1.2 Secondary Nucleation
12.2.2 Experimental Devices of UAF
12.3 FUNCTIONS OF POWER ULTRASOUND IN FOOD FREEZING
12.3.1 Inducing Ice Nucleation
12.3.2 Controlling Ice Crystals' Size and Shape
12.3.3 Improving Freezing Rate
12.3.4 Improving the Microstructure of Frozen Food
12.3.5 Improving Frozen Food Quality
12.4 APPLICATION OF POWER ULTRASOUND IN FOOD FREEZING
12.4.1 Ultrasound-Assisted Freezing of Liquid Food
12.4.2 Ultrasound-Assisted Freezing of Semisolid Food
12.4.3 Ultrasound-Assisted Freezing of Solid Food
12.5 FUTURE TRENDS AND DEVELOPMENTS
13 - Encapsulation of Bioactive Compounds Using Ultrasonic Technology
13.2 ENCAPSULATION OF BIOACTIVE OILS
13.2.1 Encapsulation by Emulsification
13.3 ULTRASOUND TECHNOLOGY
13.3.1 Ultrasonic Equipment Design and Mechanisms Involved in Encapsulation Phenomena
13.3.1.1 Ultrasonic Equipment Design Issues
13.3.1.2 Acoustic Streaming and Microstreaming
13.3.2 Parameters Involved in Ultrasonic Encapsulation Processing
13.3.2.2 Ultrasonic Power
13.3.2.5 Processing Time and Temperature Control
13.4 ENCAPSULATION BY ULTRASOUND-ASSISTED EMULSIFICATION
13.5 CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE PERSPECTIVES
14 - Extraction Processes Assisted by Ultrasound
14.1.1 Ultrasound Extraction in Bath Equipment
14.1.2 Ultrasound Extraction Using a Cell Disrupter
14.1.4 Advantages of Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction Technology
14.1.5 Ultrasound Extraction Processing
14.2 PHYTOCHEMICAL EXTRACTION
14.2.1 Extraction of Phenolics and Anthocyanins
14.2.2 Extraction of Flavonoids
14.2.3 Extraction of Polysaccharides and Carbohydrates
14.2.4 Extraction of Aromas
14.3 EQUIPMENT FOR CONTINUOUS PROCESSING
14.4 COMBINED TECHNOLOGIES
14.4.1 Ultrasound Electrostatic Field Extraction (UEE)
15 - Other Mass Transfer Unit Operations Enhanced by Ultrasound
15.1 MECHANISMS FOR IMPROVING MASS TRANSFER IN FOOD WITH ULTRASOUND
15.1.1 Mechanisms That Reduce External Resistance
15.1.2 Mechanisms That Reduce Internal Resistance
15.1.2.2 Indirect Effects
15.2 ULTRASOUND-ASSISTED DRYING OF FOODS
15.3 ULTRASOUND-ASSISTED OSMOTIC DEHYDRATION OF FOODS
15.4 ULTRASOUND AS A PRETREATMENT TO DRYING OF FOODS
15.5 ULTRASOUND-ASSISTED HYDRATION AND REHYDRATION OF FOODS
15.6 OTHER UNIT OPERATIONS OF MASS TRANSFER
15.7 INDUSTRIAL PERSPECTIVES AND COMMERCIAL USE
16 - Treatment of Food Industry Wastewater With Ultrasound: A Big Opportunity for the Technology
16.1 INTRODUCTION: ULTRASOUND FOR WASTEWATER TREATMENT
16.2 WASTEWATER DISINFECTION
16.3 BIOGAS PRODUCTION FROM FOOD EFFLUENTS
16.4 CONTAMINANT DEGRADATION
16.4.2 Olive Mill Effluent Pollutants
17 - From Research to Production: Overcoming Scale-Up Limitations of Ultrasonic Processing
17.2 INCREASING THE DIAMETERS OF ULTRASONIC HORNS WHILE RETAINING HIGH VIBRATION AMPLITUDES
17.2.1 Converging Ultrasonic Horns
17.2.2 Barbell Ultrasonic Horns
17.3 PIEZOELECTRIC TRANSDUCER SELECTION CONSIDERATIONS
17.4 REACTOR CHAMBER DESIGN FOR EFFICIENT FLOW-THROUGH PROCESSING
17.5 DIRECT PROCESS SCALE-UP EXAMPLE
17.6 FURTHER SCALE-UP POSSIBILITIES
18 - Multiphysics Simulation During Ultrasound Food Processing
18.2 BUBBLE DYNAMICS MODELS
18.3 MODELING THE ACOUSTIC FIELD IN HOMOGENEOUS MEDIA
18.3.2 Helmholtz Equation
18.3.3 Boundary Conditions
18.3.3.1 Sound Hard Boundary Wall
18.3.3.2 Sound Soft Boundary
18.3.4 Numerical Simulations of an Ultrasonic Horn Reactor
18.3.5 Vibration of the Solid Boundaries
18.3.6.1 Absorption From Viscous Losses
18.3.7 Acoustic Energy and Intensity
18.4 MODELING THE ACOUSTIC FIELD IN BUBBLY LIQUIDS
18.4.1 Linearized Models of Wave Propagation in Bubbly Liquids (Commander and Prosperetti, 1989)
18.4.2 Louisnard Nonlinear Model of Wave Propagation in Bubbly Liquids (Louisnard, 2012a)
18.4.3 Bjerknes Forces and Bubble Structures
18.4.4 Other Forces Acting on Bubbles
18.4.5 Acoustic Streaming
18.5 FINAL REMARKS AND OUTLOOK
19 - Opportunities and Challenges of Ultrasound for Food Processing: An Industry Point of View
19.1.1 Basic Concepts and Applications
19.1.2 Ultrasound Equipment
19.1.3 Trends in Ultrasound Research and Industrial Applications
19.2 CLASSIFICATION OF ULTRASOUND PROCESSES
19.3 APPLICATIONS AND CHALLENGES FOR ULTRASOUND PROCESSES
19.3.1 High-Frequency Ultrasound
19.3.1.2 Fruits and Vegetables
19.3.1.4 Fats, Oils, and Emulsion Products
19.3.1.7 Ultrasound-Assisted Product Identification
19.3.2.1 Sonocrystallization
19.3.2.2 Freezing and Thawing
19.3.2.7 Meat Tenderization
19.3.2.8 Microbial and Enzyme Inactivation
19.3.2.10 Enhancement of Oxidation Process
19.3.3 Ultrasound Effects on the Extractability and Stability of Nutraceuticals
19.3.4 Ultrasound Effects on Compound Biosynthesis in Plant Foods
20 - Laws and Regulations for Novel Food Processing Technologies
20.2 THE REGULATORY STATUS OF FOOD INGREDIENTS AND ADDITIVES
20.3 ADULTERATION AND MISBRANDING
20.4 THE FOOD SAFETY MODERNIZATION ACT
20.4.1 Section 101: Inspections of Records
20.4.2 Section 102: Registration of Food Facilities
20.4.3 Section 103: Hazard Analysis and Risk-Based Preventive Controls
20.4.4 Section 105: Standards for Produce Safety
20.4.5 Section 106: Protection Against Intentional Adulteration
20.4.6 Section 107: Authority to Collect Fees
20.4.7 Section 108: National Agriculture and Food Defense Strategy
20.4.8 Section 111: Sanitary Transportation of Food
20.4.9 Section 113: New Dietary Ingredients
20.4.10 Section 114: Requirement for Guidance Relating to Postharvest Processing of Raw Oysters
20.4.11 Section 115: Port Shopping
20.4.12 Section 201: Targeting of Inspection Resources for Domestic Facilities, Foreign Facilities, and Ports of Entry: Annual Report
20.4.13 Section 202: Laboratory Accreditation for Analyses of Foods
20.4.14 Section 204: Enhancing Tracking and Tracing of Food and Record-Keeping
20.4.15 Section 206: Mandatory Recall Authority
20.4.16 Section 207: Administrative Detention of Food
20.4.17 Section 208: Decontamination and Disposal Standards and Plans
20.4.18 Section 211: Reportable Food Registry
20.4.19 Section 301: Foreign Supplier Verification Program
20.4.20 Section 302: Voluntary Qualified Importer Program
20.4.21 Section 303: Authority to Require Import Certifications for Food
20.4.22 Section 304: Prior Notice of Imported Food Shipments
20.4.23 Section 306: Inspection of Foreign Food Facilities
20.4.24 Section 307: Accreditation of Third Party Auditors
20.4.25 Section 308: Foreign Offices of the Food and Drug Administration
20.4.26 Section 402: Employee Protections
20.5 US DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE PROGRAMS
20.5.1 Food Safety–Food Safety and Inspection Service—FSIS
20.5.2 Food Safety—The Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service—APHIS
20.6.1 Marketing and Regulatory Programs
20.6.2 Agricultural Marketing Service
20.7 COUNTRY OF ORIGIN LABELING (COOL)
20.7.2 The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Programs
Ultrasound: Advances in Food Processing and Preservation
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