Front Cover

Engineering of High-Performance Textiles

Copyright

Contents

List of contributors

Preface

Part One: Product design

Chapter 1: Fiber selection and substitution

1.1. Introduction

1.1.1. Textile fibers

1.1.2. Yarn production systems

1.2. Fiber fineness

1.2.1. Fibers according to fineness

1.2.2. Fiber fineness and yarn count limit

1.2.3. Wool according to diameter

1.3. Fiber length

1.3.1. Fiber length measurement

1.3.2. Influence on yarn quality

1.4. Fiber crimp

1.5. Tensile properties

1.6. Thermal conductivity

1.7. Moisture absorbency

1.7.1. Moisture absorption

1.7.2. Wicking and drying

1.8. Static electricity

1.9. Fiber substitution

References

Further reading

Chapter 2: High-performance fibers for textiles

2.1. High-strength fibers

2.1.1. Introduction

2.1.2. Natural high-strength fibers

2.1.2.1. Silk fibroin

2.1.2.2. Spider silk

2.1.3. Synthetic strong fibers

2.1.3.1. Inorganic fibers

Basalt fiber

Carbon fiber

2.1.3.2. Organic fibers

Ultrahigh molecular weight polyethylene (UHMWPE) fiber

Aramid fiber

PBO fiber

PIPD fiber

2.1.4. Progress in high-strength fibers

2.2. Temperature regulating fibers

2.2.1. Introduction

2.2.2. Hygroscopic exothermal fibers

2.2.3. Heat-retaining hollow fibers

2.2.4. Thermal storage of solar energy by fibers

2.2.5. Electric (Joule) heating fibers

2.2.6. Resistance to temperature change by fibers

2.2.7. Cooling fibers

2.3. Moisture control fibers

2.3.1. Introduction

2.3.2. Natural moisture control fibers

2.3.2.1. Cellulosic fibers

2.3.2.2. Protein fibers

2.3.3. Synthetic moisture control fibers

2.3.3.1. Modified natural fibers

2.3.3.2. Polyester

2.3.3.3. Polyester/nylon

2.3.3.4. Polyester/ethylene-vinyl alcohol

2.3.3.5. Nylon

2.3.3.6. Polyacrylonitrile

2.3.4. Progress in moisture control fibers

2.4. Elastic fibers

2.4.1. Polyurethane elastic fiber—Elastane

2.4.2. Olefin-based elastic fiber—Elastolefin

2.4.3. Polyester elastic fiber—Elastomultiester

2.4.4. Alkadienes elastic fiber—Elastodiene

2.4.5. Polyether—ester elastic fiber (PEET)

2.4.6. Hard elastic fibers

2.4.7. Summary and future trends of elastic fibers

2.5. Radiation shielding fibers

2.5.1. Gamma and X-ray shielding

2.5.2. Visible and IR lights shielding

2.5.3. Microwave radiations shielding

2.5.4. Summary and future trends

2.6. Flame retardant fibers

2.6.1. Introduction

2.6.2. Aramids

2.6.2.1. Meta-aramid

2.6.2.2. Para-aramid

2.6.2.3. Para-aramid copolymer

2.6.3. Carbon and semicarbon

2.6.4. Modacrylic

2.6.5. Polyacrylate

2.6.6. Chlorofiber

2.6.7. Fluorocarbon (polytetrafluorethylene, PTFE)

2.6.8. Phenolic

2.6.9. Melamine

2.6.10. Sulfur-containing poly(phenylene sulfide) (PPS)

2.6.11. Polybenzoxazole (PBO)

2.6.12. Polybenzimidazole (PBI)

2.6.13. Polypyridobisimidazole (PIPD)

2.6.14. Polyimide (PI)

2.6.15. Polyamide-imide (PAI)

2.6.16. Flame retardant viscose

2.6.17. Flame retardant polyester

2.6.18. Glass

2.6.19. Progress/frontier

2.7. Summary

References

Chapter 3: Fiber blending

3.1. Purposes of fiber blending or mixing

3.2. Methods of blending

3.2.1. Fabrics made from two or more types of yarns

3.2.2. Union yarns

3.2.3. Composite yarns made from staple fibers and continuous filaments

3.2.4. Commingling of multifilament yarns

3.2.5. Blended spun yarns

3.3. Blending effects

3.3.1. Strength of blended yarns

3.3.2. Electrical percolation in blended yarns

3.3.3. Twist requirement of blended yarns

3.4. Examples of blended textiles

3.4.1. Cotton/polyester blends

3.4.2. Wool/cotton blends

3.4.3. Eliminating wool felting shrinkage

3.4.4. Improving wrinkle resistance

3.4.5. Elastane yarns

3.4.6. Sportwool

3.4.7. Differential shrinkage blends

3.4.8. Spinning extra-fine-count yarns

3.4.9. Melt-bonding fibers

3.4.10. Fabric sensor from conductive and nonconductive fiber blends

3.4.11. Commingled and blended yarns for thermoplastic composites

References

Chapter 4: Fiber-to-yarn predictions

4.1. Introduction

4.2. Fiber quality indices

4.3. Theoretical models

4.3.1. Models describing the relationship between fiber quality and yarn evenness

4.3.2. Models describing the relationship between fiber quality and yarn tenacity

4.4. Models used in industry

4.5. Databases

4.5.1. Considerations in selecting a training set

4.5.2. Fiber and yarn results

4.5.3. Model selection/considerations in development of prediction models

4.5.4. Mill correction factor

4.6. Validation of Cottonspec results

4.7. Conclusion

References

Chapter 5: Fabric structures: Woven, knitted, or nonwoven

5.1. Introduction

5.2. Woven fabrics

5.2.1. Weave structures

5.2.1.1. Plain weave

5.2.1.2. Twill weave

5.2.1.3. Satin weave

5.2.2. Woven fabric specifications and fabric geometry

5.2.2.1. Physical properties of woven fabrics

Packing of yarns in fabric

Fabric cover factors

Fabric mass

Fabric thickness

5.2.2.2. Mechanical properties of woven fabrics

5.2.2.3. Performance properties of woven fabrics

5.2.3. Woven fabric production

5.3. Knitted fabrics

5.3.1. Weft-knitted fabrics

5.3.1.1. Weft-knitted fabric structure

Plain structure

Rib structure

Purl structure

Interlock structure

5.3.1.2. Weft-knitted fabric production

5.3.1.3. Performance characteristics of weft-knitted fabric

Stretch and recovery properties

Pilling and abrasion properties

Moisture and liquid absorption and transfer properties

Compression properties

5.3.2. Warp-knitted fabrics

5.3.2.1. Warp-knitted fabric structure

5.3.2.2. Warp-knitted fabric production

5.3.2.3. Performance characteristics of warp-knitted fabric

5.4. Nonwoven fabrics

5.4.1. Nonwoven fabric structures

5.4.2. Nonwoven production technologies

5.4.2.1. Web-forming techniques

Drylaid system

Wetlaid system

Spunlaid system

5.4.2.2. Bonding techniques

Thermal bonding

Chemical bonding

Mechanical bonding

Needlepunching

Stitchbonding

Hydroentanglement

5.4.3. Characteristics of nonwoven fabrics

References

Further reading

Chapter 6: Woven fabric structures and properties

6.1. Introduction

6.2. Introduction to woven structures

6.2.1. Weave design

6.2.2. Basic structural elements

6.2.3. Influence of structure on fabric properties

6.3. Geometrical analysis to woven fabric structures

6.3.1. A geometrical model for plain weave

6.3.2. Model parameters in describing important structural properties

6.3.3. Geometrical model for noncircular yarn cross-sections

6.3.4. Modeling different fabric weaves

6.4. Influence on fabric properties—By structural modifications

6.5. Mechanical properties of woven fabric

6.5.1. Tensile behavior

6.5.1.1. Fabric parameters affecting tensile behavior

6.5.2. Shear behavior

6.5.3. Bending behavior

6.5.4. Buckling behavior

6.6. Influence of 3D woven structures on fabric properties

References

Part Two: Performance enhancement

Chapter 7: Colorfastness

7.1. Introduction

7.2. Factors affecting colorfastness

7.2.1. Interaction between a dye and a fiber

7.2.2. Pigmented fabrics

7.2.2.1. Pigment dyeing

7.2.3. External influences on colorfastness

7.2.3.1. Daylight

7.2.3.2. Laundering/wetfastness

7.2.3.3. Dry cleaning

7.2.3.4. Rub fastness

7.2.3.5. Perspiration

7.2.3.6. Heat

7.2.3.7. Atmospheric pollutants

7.3. Colorfastness properties of specific fiber-dye systems

7.3.1. Natural fibers

7.3.1.1. Cellulosic fibers

7.3.1.2. Wool

7.3.1.3. Silk

7.3.2. Synthetic fibers

7.3.2.1. Polyester

7.3.2.2. Polyamides

7.3.2.3. Acrylic fibers

7.3.2.4. Others

7.4. Finishes to improve colorfastness

7.4.1. Improving washfastness

7.4.2. UV protection

7.5. Assessment of colorfastness

7.5.1. Colorfastness standards and test methods

7.5.2. Gray scales

7.5.3. Standard test methods

7.5.3.1. Lightfastness

7.5.3.2. Washfastness

7.5.3.3. Crocking and rubbing fastness

7.5.3.4. Perspiration fastness

7.5.3.5. Chlorinated water

7.5.3.6. Fastness to dry cleaning

7.5.3.7. Other factors

7.6. Future trends

7.7. Sources of further information and advice

Acknowledgment

References

Chapter 8: Easy-care treatments for fabrics and garments

8.1. Introduction

8.2. Definition of easy-care properties and test methods

8.3. Development of easy-care finishing technology

8.3.1. Formaldehyde-based compounds

8.3.2. Formaldehyde-free compounds

8.3.2.1. Early products

8.3.2.2. Current products

Polycarboxylic acids

Citric acid

Malic acid

Maleic acid and itaconic acid

1,2,3,4-Butanetetracarboxylic acid

Polyamino carboxylic acids (PACAs)

Ionic cross-linking agents

Further possibilities of formaldehyde-free easy-care finishing

8.3.3. Use of nanotechnology in easy-care finishing

8.3.4. Combination of easy-care with other functional finishing

8.3.4.1. Easy-care and flame retardancy finishing

8.3.4.2. Easy-care and antimicrobial finishing

8.3.4.3. Easy-care and water-oil repellency

8.4. Future perspectives

References

Chapter 9: Pilling-resistant knitwear

9.1. Introduction

9.1.1. Pilling

9.1.2. Pill formation and development

9.1.3. Pilling of knitwear

9.2. Pilling assessment

9.2.1. Pilling box

9.2.2. Atlas random tumble pilling tester

9.2.3. Modified Martindale method

9.2.4. Wear trials

9.2.5. Objective pilling assessment methods

9.3. Factors affecting pilling

9.4. Pilling management for knitwear

9.5. Pilling of synthetic and blended textiles

9.6. Summary

References

Further reading

Chapter 10: Warmth without the weight

10.1. Introduction

10.2. Mechanisms of heat transfer through textiles

10.2.1. Conductive heat transfer

10.2.2. Convective heat transfer

10.2.3. Radiative heat transfer

10.2.4. Coupled heat and moisture transfer

10.3. Representation of heat transfer properties of textiles

10.4. Heat transfer and air gap trapped within the clothing microclimate

10.4.1. Measurement of the air gap

10.4.2. Heat transfer through the air gap

10.5. Parameters related to heat transfer through textiles

10.5.1. Fabric properties

10.5.2. Garment design

10.5.3. Body posture and movement

10.5.4. Environmental conditions

10.6. Evaluations methods of the heat transfer property of textiles

10.7. Conclusions and future trends

References

Sources for further information

Chapter 11: Moisture absorption and transport through textiles

11.1. Introduction

11.2. Moisture transfer through textiles

11.2.1. Moisture transfer mechanism

11.2.2. Fiber properties

11.2.3. Fiber volume and arrangement

11.2.4. Porosity and tortuosity

11.3. Test methods and standards

11.3.1. Gravimetric/volumetric method

11.3.1.1. Siphon test

11.3.1.2. Vertical-wicking ``strip´´ test

11.3.1.3. Transverse (horizontal)-wicking test

11.3.2. Observation-based method

11.3.3. Optical method

11.3.4. Spectroscopic method

11.3.5. Electrical method

11.3.6. Other techniques

11.3.7. Evaluation of clothing moisture transfer by a sweating manikin

11.3.8. Evaluation of clothing moisture transfer by human trials

11.3.8.1. Selection and training of participants

11.3.8.2. Training and number of participants

11.3.9. Other factors

11.3.10. Psychological evaluation of clothing moisture transfer

11.4. Modeling of moisture transfer through textiles

11.4.1. Fiber surface wetting

11.4.2. Wicking in yarns

11.4.3. Wicking in fabrics

11.5. Engineering of moisture management textiles

11.6. Conclusion

References

Sources of further information

Part Three: Product specialization

Chapter 12: Compression and stretch fit garments

12.1. Introduction

12.2. Compression and stretch fit apparel

12.2.1. Pressure therapy garments

12.2.2. Compression stockings

12.2.3. Stretch fit for body shaping

12.3. Design and development of compression sportswear

12.4. Factors affecting compression performance

12.4.1. Stretch/elastic materials and their properties

12.4.2. Body shapes, 3D body scanning, and virtual fit

12.4.3. Pressure monitoring and simulation methods

12.4.4. Dynamic body motions

12.5. Physiological and psychophysical effects of compression garments on humans

12.6. Future trends

References

Further reading

Chapter 13: Conductive textiles

13.1. Introduction

13.2. Antistatic textiles

13.2.1. Mechanism of antistatic textiles

13.2.2. Antistatic textiles with hydrophilic materials

13.2.3. Antistatic textiles with conductive materials

13.3. EM shielding textiles

13.3.1. Mechanism of EM shielding

13.3.2. Measurement of EM shielding

13.3.3. Materials used in EM shielding

13.3.4. EM shielding designs in textiles

13.4. E-textiles

13.5. Functional coatings

13.5.1. Percolation threshold

13.5.2. Liquid-coating methods

13.5.2.1. Alternative formulations

13.5.3. Advanced coating methods

13.5.3.1. Physical vapor deposition

13.5.3.2. Chemical vapor deposition

13.5.3.3. Atomic layer deposition

13.5.4. Printing techniques

13.5.5. Conclusions and considerations

References

Further reading

Chapter 14: Insect-repellent textiles

14.1. Introduction

14.2. Development of insect-repellent textiles

14.2.1. Insect-repellent materials and textile treatment methods

14.2.2. Preparation of insect-repellent agents for textile finishing

14.2.2.1. Insect-repellent nanoemulsion

14.2.2.2. Insect-repellent microencapsulation

14.3. Testing and evaluation of insect-repellent textiles

14.4. Issues and challenges

14.5. Conclusions

References

Chapter 15: Camouflage fabrics

15.1. Introduction

15.1.1. The solar spectrum

15.1.2. The visual system

15.2. Detection technologies

15.2.1. Optical technologies

15.2.2. Acoustic technologies

15.2.3. Movement detection technologies

15.3. Textiles for camouflage

15.3.1. UV camouflage

15.3.2. Visible camouflage

15.3.3. NIR camouflage

15.3.3.1. Other uses of NIR reflective dyes

15.3.4. Thermal camouflage

15.3.5. Acoustic and movement camouflage

15.3.6. Hybrid systems

15.4. Future trends

References

Chapter 16: Impact-resistant fabrics (ballistic/stabbing/slashing/spike)

16.1. Introduction

16.2. Fibers, matrices, and nanoadditives

16.2.1. Fibers

16.2.1.1. Para-aramid fibers

16.2.1.2. Polyolefin fibers

16.2.1.3. Glass fibers

16.2.1.4. Carbon fibers

16.2.1.5. Ceramic fibers

16.2.2. Matrices

16.2.3. Nanospheres, nanotubes, and nanofibers

16.3. Threat and protection

16.3.1. Threat types

16.3.1.1. Bullets and fragments

16.3.1.2. Stabbing, slashing, and spike

16.3.2. Impact standards and testing

16.3.2.1. Ballistic standards

16.3.2.2. Stabbing, slashing, and spike standards

16.3.3. Protection

16.4. Impact theory

16.4.1. Impact waves

16.4.2. Impact energy

16.5. Fabrics for impact

16.5.1. Two-dimensional (2D) fabrics

16.5.1.1. 2D woven fabrics

16.5.1.2. 2D knitted fabrics

16.5.1.3. 2D nonwoven fabrics

16.5.2. Three-dimensional (3D) fabrics

16.5.2.1. 3D noninterlaced fabrics

16.5.2.2. Multistitched 3D woven fabrics

16.5.2.3. 3D fully interlaced woven fabrics

16.5.2.4. 3D orthogonal woven fabrics

16.5.2.5. Multiaxis 3D woven fabrics

16.5.2.6. 3D braided fabrics

16.5.2.7. 3D knitted fabrics

16.5.2.8. 3D nonwoven fabrics

16.5.3. Shear-thickening fluid fabrics

16.6. Impact properties of fabrics and composite structures

16.6.1. Ballistic impact on fabrics and composites

16.6.2. Stab impact on fabrics and composites

16.6.3. Analysis and modeling on fabrics and composites under impact

16.7. Main failure modes in ballistic fabric structures

16.7.1. Yarn breakages

16.7.2. Yarn pull-out

16.7.3. Transverse fabric deformation (Bowing)

16.8. Repair of ballistic structures

16.9. Ballistic structure design examples

16.9.1. Multilayered soft ballistic structures

16.9.2. Rigid ballistic structures (fiber reinforced composites/metals/ceramics)

16.10. Future trends

16.11. Conclusion

16.12. Sources of further information and advice

References

Chapter 17: Engineering design of high-performance filter fabrics

17.1. Introduction

17.2. Factors affecting the performance of filter fabrics

17.2.1. Filtration performance of filter fabrics

17.2.2. Factors need to be considered in engineering filter fabrics

17.3. Engineering design of filter fabrics

17.3.1. Fibers used in filter fabrics

17.3.2. Finishing of filter fabrics

17.3.3. Engineering the filtration performance of nonwoven air filters in-depth filtration

17.3.3.1. Performance ratings of air filter fabrics (Wimmer, 2015; AHRI, 2015; ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 52.2-2012, 2007)

17.3.3.2. Filter efficiency of nonwoven filter materials

17.3.3.3. Predicting pressure drop across clean nonwoven filter fabrics

17.3.4. Engineering the filtration performance of filter fabrics in surface filtration

17.3.4.1. Cake formation and surface filtration

17.3.4.2. Mechanisms of dust particles captured in the dust cake formation process

17.3.4.3. Predicting pressure drop across dust cake and clean filter fabrics

17.3.5. Engineering design of blood filters

17.4. Overview of filter fabrics

17.4.1. Woven filter fabrics

17.4.2. Wetlaid nonwoven filters for air filtration

17.4.3. Needle-punched nonwoven filters for air filtration

17.4.4. Hydroentangled nonwoven filters for air filtration

17.4.5. Spunbond and meltblown nonwoven filters for air filtration

17.4.6. Nanofiber nonwoven membrane filters for air filtration

17.4.7. Water filter fabrics

17.4.8. Oil filter fabrics

17.4.9. Coalescing filter fabrics

References

Further reading

Chapter 18: Fabrics for reinforcement of engineering composites

18.1. Composites—Introduction

18.1.1. Continuous fiber-reinforced materials

18.1.2. Fiber materials

18.1.2.1. Carbon fibers

18.1.2.2. Glass fibers

18.2. Textile characteristics relevant for composites

18.3. Woven fabrics

18.3.1. Conventional woven fabrics

18.3.2. Special fabric types

18.3.2.1. Woven UD fabrics

18.3.2.2. Orthogonal woven fabrics

18.3.2.3. Spread tow fabrics

Spread tow production

Spread tow fabrics

18.3.2.4. 3D multilayer fabrics

18.4. Noncrimp fabrics (NCFs)

18.5. Braids

18.5.1. Tubular braids

18.5.2. 3D-braids (Len)

18.6. Tailored reinforcement textiles

18.6.1. Tailored NCF

18.6.2. Bionic-reinforced NCF

18.6.3. Integral-reinforced woven fabrics

References

Further reading

Index

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