Front Cover

Environmental Issues Concerning Hydraulic Fracturing

Copyright

Contents

Contributors

Series Editor’s Preface

Unconventional Oil and Gas Development: An Unconventional Field of Research: Preface

Chapter One: Hydraulic Fracturing: The Technology Explained

1. Water Use in Energy Production

2. Establishing Barriers: Building a Better, Tighter Well

3. Regulations and Regulators

References

Further Reading

Chapter Two: Unconventional Oil and Gas Production: Waste Management and the Water Cycle

1. Introduction

2. The Life Cycle of Water

2.1. Water Use in Oil and Gas Production

2.2. Production Wastewater

2.3. Wastewater Management and Treatment Challenges

2.4. Cost

3. Summary

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter Three: Chemicals in Drilling, Stimulation, and Production

1. Introduction

2. Drilling Muds and Additives

3. Fracturing Additives

4. Chemicals Used in Production Operations

5. Chemicals in Oilfield-Produced Water

6. Summary

References

Further Reading

Chapter Four: Hydraulic Fracturing Chemical Disclosure: Can the Public Know What’s Going Into Oil and Natural Gas Wells?

1. Introduction

2. Rationale for Hydraulic Fracturing Chemical Disclosure

2.1. Informed Decision Making

2.2. Identifying Pollution

2.3. Response to Illness and Spills

3. What Chemicals Are Likely to be of Concern?

3.1. Drilling Chemicals

3.2. Base Fluid

3.3. Proppant

3.4. Fracking Chemical Additives

3.5. Wastewater

3.6. Other Sources of Chemicals

4. Elements of Meaningful Disclosure

4.1. Types of Chemicals

4.2. Chemical Identities

4.3. Time of Disclosure

4.4. Who Receives Disclosure?

4.5. Ease of Access to Information

4.6. Nearby Wells

4.7. Geologic and Hydrologic Information

4.8. Other Technical Well Information

4.9. Well Location

5. Fracking Chemical Disclosure Rules in the United States

5.1. States With Disclosure Rules

5.2. Where Can Public Find Fracking Chemical Disclosure Records?

5.3. What Information Is Disclosed?

5.3.1. Specific Fracking Chemical Information Typically Disclosed

5.3.2. Confidentiality

5.4. Other Concerns About State-Run Fracking Chemical Disclosure

6. U.S. Nationwide and International Fracking Chemical Disclosure

7. Toxic Substances Control Act

8. Occupational Safety and Health Administration

9. Emergency Planning and Community Right to Know Act and Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liabili ...

10. Conclusion

Acknowledgment

References

Further Reading

Chapter Five: The Human Health Implications of Oil and Natural Gas Development

1. Introduction

2. Benzene

2.1. Public Health Risks of Benzene

2.2. Benzene Emissions in Close Proximity to Residences

2.3. Point-Source Studies of Benzene Emissions

2.4. Superemitters and Leaks

2.5. Region-Wide Studies of Benzene Emissions

2.5.1. Benzene in the Colorado Northern Front Range

2.5.2. Benzene in the Barnett Shale

2.5.3. Benzene in the Marcellus Shale

2.5.4. Wintertime Benzene in the Uintah Basin

2.5.5. Top-Down vs Bottom-Up Emissions Estimates

2.6. Conclusions From Benzene Studies

2.7. Other Hazardous Air Pollutants From Oil and Gas

3. Ozone

3.1. Public Health Impact of Ozone

3.2. Ozone in the Colorado’s Northern Front Range

3.3. Ozone in the Marcellus Shale

3.4. Ozone in the Barnett Shale

3.5. Wintertime Ozone in Utah and Wyoming

3.6. Conclusions From Ozone Studies

4. Well Blowouts, Explosions, and Fires

5. Public Health Studies

5.1. Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia

5.2. Asthma

5.3. Congenital Heart Defects

5.4. Low Birth Weight

5.5. Preterm Birth

5.6. Migraine, Fatigue, and Sinus Symptoms

5.7. Conclusions From Public Health Studies

6. Conclusions

References

Chapter Six: Public Health Concerns and Unconventional Oil and Gas Development

1. Introduction

2. Air Quality and Health

2.1. Pollution From Transportation

2.2. Ozone

2.3. Silica

2.4. Hydrogen Sulfide

2.5. Methane Emissions and Air Pollution

2.6. Chemical Pollutants and Air Pollution

2.7. Vulnerable Populations and Proximity to UD

3. Water Quality and Health

3.1. Methane and Groundwater Contamination

3.2. Hydraulic Fracturing Fluids and Other Pollutants

4. Wastewater, Disposal, and Treatment

5. Community Health Impacts

5.1. Economics and Health Care Costs

5.2. Boom or Bust Economies and Public Health

6. Conclusion

References

Chapter Seven: Societal Implications of Unconventional Oil and Gas Development

1. Hydraulic Fracturing and Human Health

1.1. Water Contamination

1.2. Water Disposal and Seismic Activities

1.3. Water Usage

1.4. Air Contamination and Climate Change

1.5. Other Health Effects

2. Legislation and Rights

2.1. Taxpayer Cost

2.2. Environmental Regulations

2.3. Restricting Public Speech

2.4. Land Rights

2.5. Public Protest

3. Power Relations

4. Conclusion

Acknowledgments

References

Further Reading

Chapter Eight: Analytical Approaches for High-Resolution Environmental Investigations of Unconventional Oil and Gas Explo ...

1. Introduction

2. Experimental Design

2.1. Location Selection

2.2. Sample Blanks

2.3. Controls and Baseline Data

3. Compound Classes and Measurement Techniques

3.1. Bulk Measurements

3.2. Volatile and Semivolatile Organic Compounds

3.2.1. Gas Chromatography

3.2.2. Multidimensional GC (GCxGC)

3.3. Nonvolatile Organic Compounds

3.3.1. Liquid Chromatography

3.4. Elemental and Ion Analysis

3.5. Unknown Organic Identification and Isotopic Quantification

3.5.1. High-Resolution Mass Spectrometry

3.5.2. Methane Isotopes (13C and 2H)

3.5.3. Noble Gas Isotopes

3.5.4. Other Isotopes

4. Case Studies of High-Resolution Environmental Investigation

4.1. Natural Gas in Groundwater

4.2. Organic and Inorganic Contamination

5. Closing Remarks

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter Nine: Considerations and Pitfalls in the Spatial Analysis of Water Quality Data and Its Association With Hydrauli ...

1. Introduction

2. Overview of Spatial Data

3. Exploratory Analyses

4. Incorporating Spatial Dependency

5. Geographically Weighted Regression

6. Hot Spot Analysis

7. Discussion

8. Conclusions

References

Chapter Ten: Hydrocarbon Emissions: Anthropogenic and Natural Sources

1. Introduction

2. Liquid Pollution

3. Well Integrity

4. Pollution Challenges and Advances and a Bit of History

5. Summary

References

Chapter Eleven: Henry’s Law and Monitoring Methane in Groundwater Wells

1. Introduction

2. Back to the Basics: Returning to Classical Laws and Principles

2.1. Henry’s Law

2.2. Dalton’s Law

2.3. Efficiency: Do What Can Be Done With as Little as Possible

3. Sampling

4. Potential for Improvement

5. Conclusions

References

Chapter Twelve: The Characterization of BTEX in Variable Soil Compositions Near Unconventional Oil and Gas Development

1. Introduction

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Air Quality Analysis

2.2. Soil Sampling

2.3. Remediation Plots

2.4. Chemicals

2.5. BTEX Analysis

2.6. Instrumentation and Parameters

2.7. Statistical Analysis

2.8. Limitations in Data for Interpretation

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Characterizing Atmospheric Contamination

3.2. Time Series Soil Analyses

3.3. Geospatial Analyses

3.4. Variable Soil Compositions

3.5. BTEX Volatilization, Sequestration, and Remediation

4. Summary

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter Thirteen: Mass Spectrometry for the Study of Microbial Communities in Environmental Waters

1. Introduction

2. Analytical Microbiology

3. MALDI-TOF MS

3.1. Identification of Environmental Microorganisms

3.2. MALDI-TOF MS for Dereplication

3.3. MALDI-TOF MS for Environmental Proteomics

3.4. MALDI-TOF MS to Study the Impact of Unconventional Drilling on the Water Microbiome

4. Concluding Remarks

References

Chapter Fourteen: Best Management Practices From the “Responsible Shale Energy Extraction” Conference: Guiding Indust ...

1. Introduction

2. Air Quality

2.1. Methane Emissions

2.2. Volatile Organic Carbon Emissions

2.3. Various Technologies for Monitoring Air Quality

3. Groundwater and Surface Water Quality

4. Water and Waste Management

5. Induced Seismicity

6. Light Pollution

7. Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

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