Chapter
1.5 Sources of useful information
2 Impact of processing on the chemistry and functionality of food proteins
2.2 Structure and chemistry of food proteins
2.3 Functionality of food protein
2.3.1 Food protein solubility
2.3.2 Water-holding capacity of food proteins
2.3.3 Fat-absorption capacity of food proteins
2.3.4 Emulsifying and foaming properties of food proteins
2.3.5 Gel-forming properties of food proteins
2.4 Effect of processing on food protein functionality
2.4.1 Thermal processing of food proteins
2.4.2 Nonthermal and emerging processing technologies
2.4.2.1 Chemical modifications of food proteins
2.4.2.2 Enzymatic treatment of food proteins
2.5 Effect of process-induced protein modifications on chemosensory properties of food
Part One Sources of proteins
3 The caseins: Structure, stability, and functionality
3.3.1 Self-association of caseins
3.3.2 Interactions with other caseins
3.3.3 Amyloid-like casein structures
3.4 Casein-mineral interactions
3.6 Stability of casein micelles
3.6.1 Colloidal stability
3.6.2 Intramicellar stability
3.7 Casein-based ingredients
3.7.1 Caseins and caseinates
3.7.2 Milk protein and micellar casein concentrates and isolates
3.7.3 Casein hydrolysates
3.7.4 Applications of caseins in dairy and nondairy products
3.8 Conclusions and future perspectives
4.1 Introduction: What are whey proteins? Sources of whey (acid, sweet)
4.1.2 What are whey proteins?
4.2 Analytical methods for determining protein content
4.2.1 Polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis
4.2.2 Liquid chromatography
4.2.3 Immunoturbidimetric methods
4.3 Structure of whey proteins
4.3.3 Bovine serum albumin
4.4 Functional properties of whey proteins
4.4.2 Water-protein interactions
4.4.3 Interaction of whey proteins with other food ingredients
4.4.3.1 Whey protein-hydrocolloid interactions
4.4.3.2 Whey protein-lipid interactions
4.4.3.3 Whey protein-carbohydrate interactions
4.5 Improving functionality of whey proteins in foods: Physical processes and enzymatic modification
4.5.1 Physical processes to enhance functionality
4.5.2 Enzymatic modification to enhance functionality
5.2 Structure of muscle proteins
5.4 Muscle protein functionality
5.4.3 Water-holding capacity
5.5 Prepared muscle proteins as functional ingredients
5.7 Sources of further information
6 Soy as a food ingredient
6.2 Structure of soybean proteins
6.2.3 Structure in solutions
6.3 Gels and gelling of soy proteins
6.3.1 Heat-induced gels of soy globulins with or without coagulant
6.3.2 Tofu, soybean curd from soymilk
6.4 Emulsification of soy proteins
6.4.1 Protein-stabilized emulsions
6.4.2 Emulsifying properties of soy proteins
6.4.3 Environmental factors affecting emulsifying properties
6.4.3.2 pH and ionic strength
6.4.3.4 Mechanical stress
6.4.3.5 Chilling and freezing
6.4.3.6 Other constituents
6.4.3.7 Factors destabilizing soybean oil body emulsion
6.5 How to improve the functionality and processability
6.5.2 Chemical modification
6.5.4 Mixing with polysaccharides
6.6.1 Fermented soy-based foods
6.6.1.4 Shoyu, miso, and douchi
6.6.2 Nonfermented soy-based foods
6.6.2.1 Fibrous meat-like texture made by extrusion cooking
7 Proteins from oil-producing plants
7.2 Characteristics of oilseed proteins
7.2.1 Sunflower/safflower (aster family)
7.2.2 Canola/mustard (mustard family)
7.2.3 Other oilseeds (sesame, flax, and hemp)
7.3 Factors limiting protein utilization
7.3.2 Proteinase inhibitors
7.3.6 Glucosides and glycosides
7.3.7 Allergenic proteins
7.4 Extraction and isolation of proteins
7.4.2 Oil extraction conditions
7.4.3 Preliminary meal treatments
7.4.4 Protein solubilization
7.4.5 Protein purification and recovery
7.5 Preparation and use of oilseed protein hydrolysates for health benefits
7.6 Technofunctional properties of proteins
7.6.1 Properties involving protein-water interactions
7.6.2 Properties involving protein-lipid interactions
7.6.3 Properties involving protein-air interactions
7.6.4 Properties involving protein-protein interactions
7.7 Techniques to improve functional properties
7.7.1 Chemical modification
7.7.2 Enzymatic modification
7.7.3 Proteins in mixed systems
7.8 Utilization of oilseed proteins
7.9 Future of these proteins
8.1.1 Proteins in cereals and pseudocereals
8.2 Protein function in the seeds
8.3 Protein classifications
8.3.1 Albumins, globulins, and other proteins
8.4.2 Modification: heat treatments and interactions
8.5 Cereals and pseudocereals proteins in food processing
8.5.2 Crackers, cookies, and biscuits
9.1 Introduction: Seaweed and protein content of seaweed
9.1.1 Seaweed consumption
9.1.2 Proteins in seaweeds
9.2 Composition of seaweed proteins
9.3 Algal protein digestibility
9.3.1 Inhibition of algal protein digestibility
9.3.2 Effects of processes on algal protein digestibility
9.3.2.1 Physical processes
9.3.2.2 Fermentation processes
9.3.3 Enzymatic processes
9.4 Uses of algal proteins in food
9.6 Sources of further information and advice
10 Insects as an Alternative Protein Source
10.2 History of entomophagy
10.3 Nutritional value of insects for human consumption
10.5 Dietary energy and fat content
10.6 Impact on the environment
11 Proteins in cultured beef
11.1 Introduction—Why cultured beef?
11.3 Optimizing the product
11.3.1 Protein composition
11.5 Road to product development
Part Two Analyzing and modifying protein
12 Food proteins for health and nutrition
12.2 Growing demand for protein and sustainability
12.4 Protein quality and its measurement
12.5 Bioactivities of proteins
12.5.1 Proteins for the management of cardiovascular health
12.5.2 Proteins for bone health
12.5.3 Proteins for elderly population
12.5.4 Proteins for weight management and satiety
12.5.5 Proteins for sports
12.7 Safety and legal aspects of protein
13 Factors affecting enzyme activity in food processing
13.3 Parameters affecting enzymatic activity
13.3.1 Concentration effects
13.3.2 Temperature effects
13.3.5 Cofactor and inhibitory effects
13.5.2.2 Starch industries
13.5.2.4 Fruit, vegetable, and oilseed industries
13.5.2.5 Meat and fish industries
14 Detection and deactivation of allergens in food
14.2 Mechanism of food-induced allergic reaction
14.3 Detection of food allergens
14.3.1 Protein-based approach
14.3.2 DNA-based approaches
14.3.3 In silico approach
14.4 Food processing and allergenicity
14.4.1 Thermal processing (humid or dry heat treatment)
14.4.2 Nonthermal processing
14.4.2.1 Enzymatic hydrolysis
14.4.2.3 High-pressure processing (HPP)
14.4.2.4 Pulsed electric field (PEF) treatment
14.4.2.5 Pulsed ultraviolet light (PUV) treatment
14.4.2.6 Gamma irradiation
14.4.2.7 Ultrasound treatment
15 Food protein-derived peptides: Production, isolation, and purification
15.2.2 Plant, algae, and single-cell proteins
15.3 Enzymatic hydrolysis of proteins: Basic concepts
15.3.1 Single enzyme digestion
15.3.2 Multiple enzyme digestion
15.4 Peptide separation and isolation methods
15.4.1 Membrane ultrafiltration
15.4.3 Fast protein liquid chromatography
15.5 Purification protocols
15.6 Structural identification and amino acid sequencing
16 Modifying seeds to produce proteins
16.2 Methods used for seed modification
16.2.1 Traditional plant breeding in seed modification
16.2.2 Genetic engineering in seed modification
16.2.3 Novel breeding techniques in seed modifications
16.3 Applications in seed modification
16.3.1 Expression of modified proteins in seeds
16.3.2 Expression of enzymes in seeds
16.3.3 Expression of therapeutics in seeds
16.5 Sources of further information and advice
17.2 Nutritional aspects of seafood proteins
17.3 Technological and functional aspects of seafood proteins
17.3.3 Foaming properties
17.4 Seafood processing and its impact on protein quality
17.4.1 Low-temperature processing
17.4.1.1 Chilling and superchilling
17.4.2 Thermal and alternative processing
17.4.3 Nonthermal processing and emerging technologies
17.4.3.1 High hydrostatic pressure
17.5 Seafood proteins as food ingredients
17.5.1 Mince, protein concentrates, and surimi
17.5.2 Collagen and gelatin
17.5.3 Protein hydrolysates
17.6 Recovery of high-value proteins from seafood and its by-products
17.6.2 Antifreeze proteins
17.6.3 Bioactive peptides
17.7 Proteins used as markers of quality and authenticity in seafood
18 Edible films and coatings from proteins
18.2 Proteins as film-forming agents
18.3 Physical and chemical methods to improve properties of protein films
18.3.4.1 Physical methods
18.3.4.2 Chemical methods
18.3.4.3 Enzymatic methods
18.3.5 Addition of reinforcing nanomaterials
18.4 Active protein films
19.2.1 Animal protein sources
19.2.2 Plant protein sources
19.2.3 Fungi and algae protein sources
19.3 Gel formation by proteins
19.4 Proteins as gelling agent
19.5 Mechanical properties of protein gels
19.6.1 Gel morphology and rheology
19.6.2 Variation of protein concentration
19.6.3 The effect of addition of polysaccharides
19.6.4 Influence of heating rate and temperature on gel morphology
19.6.5 The influence of ionic strength and pH on gel morphology
19.6.6 Modification of proteins to vary the gel morphology
19.7 Relation between gel morphology and macroscopic responses
19.8 Comparison between plant and animal protein gels
20 Health-related functional value of dairy proteins and peptides
20.2 Health benefits of dairy proteins and peptides on metabolic syndrome
20.2.1 Effects on blood pressure
20.2.2 Body weight management and satiety
20.2.3 Antidiabetic effects
20.2.4 Hypocholesterolemic activity
20.3 Effects of dairy proteins and peptides on intestinal epithelium
20.3.1 Effects on nutrient absorption
20.3.2 Interaction with opioid receptors
20.3.3 Protection of intestinal mucosa
20.3.4 Antiinflammatory activity
20.4 Other effects of dairy proteins and peptides
20.4.1 Antimicrobial activity
20.4.2 Immunomodulatory activity
20.4.3 Relaxing and antinociceptive activity
20.5 Conclusions and future challenges
21 The use of immobilized enzymes to improve functionality
21.1 General overview about enzymes and immobilized enzymes
21.1.1 Definition of an enzyme
21.1.2 Definition of immobilized enzyme
21.1.3 Materials utilized as carriers to immobilize enzymes
21.1.3.1 Inorganic support, carrier, or matrix
21.1.3.2 Organic support, carrier, or matrix
21.1.3.3 Organic-synthetic support, carrier, or matrix
21.1.4 Characteristics to consider for the matrix or support materials used in enzyme immobilization
21.1.4.2 Functional groups
21.1.4.3 Dimensions and porosity/permeability
21.1.4.4 Mechanical strength
21.1.4.5 Resistance to microbial contamination
21.1.4.7 Hydrophobicity and/or hydrophilicity
21.1.4.8 Matrix size and shape
21.1.5 Organic solvents and enzyme reactivity behavior
21.1.6 Immobilized enzyme preparation and marketplace
21.1.7 Advantages and disadvantages of immobilized enzymes
21.1.8 Temperature and pH and their effects on free and immobilized enzymes activities
21.2 Enzyme immobilization methods: Descriptions, benefits, and drawbacks
21.2.5 Entrapping, encapsulation, and/or microencapsulation
21.2.6 Other enzyme immobilization methods
21.2.6.1 Disulfide linkages, bonds, or bridges
21.2.6.2 Metal bonding or chelation
21.2.6.3 Enzymatic combination or conjugation through protein bonding to similar molecules
21.3 Usage of immobilized enzymes in food production, medicine, and other fields
21.3.1 Use of immobilized enzymes in food production
21.3.2 Use of immobilized enzymes in medicine
21.3.3 Use of immobilized enzymes in other fields such as industrial wastewater treatment, biodiesel production; and ...
21.3.3.1 Immobilized enzymes use in industrial wastewater treatment and environmental contaminations
21.3.3.2 Immobilized enzymes use in biodiesel production
21.3.3.3 The use of immobilized enzymes in textile, detergent, and chemical industries
21.4 The use of immobilized enzymes either in producing proteins, carbohydrates, or lipids; or utilizing proteins, ca ...
21.4.1 The use of immobilized enzymes either in producing proteins or utilizing proteins as the supporting material
21.4.1.1 The use of immobilized enzymes to produce amino acids
21.4.2 The use of immobilized enzymes either to produce carbohydrates or utilize carbohydrates as the supporting mate ...
21.4.2.1 The use of immobilized enzymes to produce carbohydrates
21.4.2.2 Glucose Isomerase to produce high-fructose corn syrup
21.4.2.3 Beta-galactosidase to produce hydrolase lactose and/or galactooligosaccharides
21.4.2.4 Hydrolysis of pectin
21.4.3 The use of immobilized enzymes either in producing lipids or utilizing lipids as the supporting material
21.5 Other important applications of immobilized enzymes
21.5.1 Bitter compounds mitigation in fruit juices
21.5.2 Wine aroma improvement
21.6 The practice of cell immobilization
21.7 Potential and developing applications of immobilized enzymes
22 Impact of proteins on food color
22.1.1 Properties contributing to color and appearance
22.1.1.1 Absorption, transmission, and reflection of light
22.1.1.2 Light scattering
Particle size and scattering
22.1.1.3 Lighting properties
22.1.2 Color perception and measurement
22.1.2.1 Attributes of color spaces
22.2 Role of proteins in color
22.2.1 Scattering properties
22.2.1.1 Subsurface effects: Kubelka-Munk analysis
22.2.1.2 Water-binding effects
22.2.2 Absorption characteristics
22.2.2.3 Flavoproteins and cytochromes
22.2.3 Contribution of proteins to browning reactions
22.2.3.1 Enzymatic reactions
22.2.3.2 Maillard reactions
22.3 Improving protein functionality in color control
22.3.1 Heme pigments of fresh meats
22.3.2 Myoglobin pigments of cured meats
22.4 Applications to maintain color quality
22.4.2 Modified atmosphere packaging
22.4.3 Ionizing radiation effects
22.4.4 Meat processing effects on color
Proteins in Food Processing
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