Cover

Title

Copyright

Contents

Contributors

Preface

Part I: Historical perspective

1 Neuroleptic-induced movement disorders: historical perspective

Initial Descriptions

Tardive Dyskinesia

Conclusion

Acknowledgment

References

Part II: Clinical aspects of tardive dyskinesia

2 Aging and tardive dyskinesia

Relationship Between Spontaneous Dyskinesia and Tardive Dyskinesia

Prevalence of Tardive Dyskinesia

Incidence of Tardive Dyskinesia

Relationships Between Other Neuromedical Disorders and Tardive Dyskinesia

Edentulousness and Tardive Dyskinesia

Cerebrovascular Disease, Imaging, and Dyskinesias in Older Adults

Pathophysiological Considerations

Conclusion

References

3 Gender as a factor in the development of tardive dyskinesia

Prevalences of Tardive Dyskinesia

Age and Gender Interaction

Gender and Severity of Tardive Dyskinesia

Differences in Manifestations of Tardive Dyskinesia

Discussion

References

4 The Yale tardive dyskinesia study: a prospective incidence study among long-term outpatients

Design and Methods

Results

Discussion

Conclusion

References

5 Vulnerability to tardive dyskinesia in schizophrenia: an exploration of individual patient factors

The Study

Conclusion

Acknowledgment

References

6 Tardive dyskinesia and affective disorder

Epidemiology

Unipolar versus Bipolar Depression

Possible Mechanisms

Antidepressants

Lithium and Tardive Dyskinesia

Carbamazepine and Valproic Acid

Electroconvulsive Treatment

Conclusion

References

7 Diabetes mellitus and tardive dyskinesia

Diabetes Mellitus and Tardive Dyskinesia

Insulin Resistance and NIDDM

Insulin Resistance and the Brain

How Does Insulin Resistance Influence the Pathogenesis of Tardive Dyskinesia?

Concluding Remarks

References

8 Other factors in the development of tardive dyskinesia

Genetic Factors

Smoking

References

9 Neuroleptic treatment and tardive dyskinesia

Type of Neuroleptic

Dosage and Duration of Treatment

Age and Diagnosis

Conclusion

References

10 Anticholinergic drugs as factors in the development of tardive dyskinesia

Do Anticholinergic Drugs Increase the Risk for Tardive Dyskinesia?

Do Anticholinergic Drugs Uncover or Aggravate Tardive Dyskinesia?

Conclusion

References

Part III: Mechanisms underlying tardive dyskinesia

11 Neurochemistry of the basal ganglia

Structures of the Basal Ganglia

Input to the Basal Ganglia

Output of the Basal Ganglia

Circuitry of the Basal Ganglia

Identified Neurotransmitters of Basal-Ganglia-Thalamocortical Circuitry

Patch-and-Matrix Organization in the Neostriatum

References

12 A reanalysis of the dopamine theory of tardive dyskinesia: the hypothesis of dopamine D1/D2 imbalance

Clinical Dyskinesia Paradigms

Animal Models

Clinical Studies

Receptor Studies

Proposed Models for D2- and DrAntagonist-Induced Dyskinesia

Conclusions and Areas for Future Research

References

13 Tardive dyskinesia and phenylalanine metabolism: risk-factor studies

Four Studies

Amino Acid Transport in Brain and PKU

Phe Metabolites and Neurological Function

Tardive Dyskinesia and Gender

Conclusion

Acknowledgment

References

14 Neuroendocrinological studies of tardive dyskinesia

The Dopaminergic Systems

The Role of Estrogens

The GABAergic System

The Noradrenergic System

Studies of Glucose Metabolism

Studies of the Hypothalamic-Pituitary Axis

Studies of Melatonin and Serotonin

Studies of Free Radicals

Miscellaneous Findings

Conclusion

References

15 Cognitive deficits and tardive dyskinesia

Two Sociological Studies

Tardive Dyskinesia in Context

Tardive Dyskinesia and Cognitive Functions: Four Studies

Discussion

References

16 Studies of tardive dyskinesia using computed tomography and magnetic-resonance imaging

CT Studies of Tardive Dyskinesia

MRI Studies of Tardive Dyskinesia

Confounding Factors

What is the Specificity of Recent Brain-Imaging Findings in Tardive Dyskinesia?

Conclusion

Acknowledgment

References

17 Rodent and other animal models of tardive dyskinesia during long-term neuroleptic-drug administration: controversies and implications for the clinical syndrome

Phenomenology

Methods

Pathophysiology

Neuropathology

Conclusion

Acknowledgment

References

Part IV: Measurement of tardive dyskinesia

18 Instrument measurements of tardive dyskinesia

Attributes of Instrument Assessment Systems

Description of Apparatus and Analysis

Pharmacologic Studies

Summary and Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

Part V: Tardive dyskinesia in different populations

19 Cultural aspects of tardive dyskinesia in Asia

Prevalence

Age and Gender

Brain Organic Damage

Drug Factors

Conclusion

References

20 Tardive dyskinesia in North America and the Middle East

Epidemiologic Studies of Tardive Dyskinesia

Neuropsychological Studies of Tardive Dyskinesia

Therapeutic Tardive Dyskinesia Trials

Abnormal Involuntary Movements in Never-Treated Schizophrenics

Conclusion

References

21 Tardive dyskinesia in Europe

General Considerations

Prevalence Studies in European Countries

Conclusion

Acknowledgments

References

22 Role of ethnicity in the development of tardive dyskinesia

Ethnicity and Tardive Dyskinesia

Ethnicity and Diagnosis of Psychosis

Ethnicity and Neuroleptic Dosage

Ethnicity and Pharmacogenetics

Ethnic Differences in Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics

Our Study of the Risk for Tardive Dyskinesia Among Patients Over Age 45

Suggestions for Future Research

Acknowledgments

References

23 Tardive dyskinesia in children and adolescents

Design of This Review

Methodological Issues

Definition and Diagnosis of Tardive Dyskinesia

Risk Factors for Tardive Dyskinesia

Symptoms of Tardive Dyskinesia

Epidemiology

Biology

Rating Scales

Conclusion

References

Part VI: Other neuroleptic-induced movement disorders

24 Drug-induced parkinsonism

Clinical Presentation

Epidemiology

Evaluation

Pathophysiology

Treatment

Conclusion

Acknowledgments

References

25 Clinical aspects of neuroleptic-induced dystonia

Clinical Manifestations of Acute Dystonia

Risk Factors for Acute Dystonia

Management of Acute Dystonia

Conclusion

References

26 Tardive dystonia

Phenomenology

Epidemiology and Risk Factors

Differential Diagnosis

Prognosis

Treatment

Discussion

References

27 Tardive akathisia

Definition of Akathisia

Tardive Akathisia: Criteria for Diagnosis

Tardive Akathisia: Clinical Features

Tardive Akathisia: Differential Diagnosis

Tardive Akathisia: Clinical Course and Treatment

Acknowledgments

References

Part VII: Treatment of tardive dyskinesia

28 Development of novel antipsychotic drugs with reduced extrapyramidal side effects

Acute and Chronic EPSEs

Mechanisms of Action of Antipsychotic Drugs and Induction of EPSEs

Decreased EPSEs with Atypical or Novel Antipsychotic Drugs

Conclusion

References

29 GABAergic treatments for tardive dyskinesia

Dopamine Receptor Supersensitivity Hypothesis

GABAergic Modification of the Dopamine Hypothesis

Clinical Evidence for the GABA Hypothesis

Clinical Trials of GABA-mimetics

Summary of GABA-mimetic Treatments

A GABAergic Perspective on Management of Tardive Dyskinesia

Conclusion

References

30 Using biofeedback to train suppression of the oral-lingual movements of tardive dyskinesia

Biofeedback

Study 1

Study 2

Discussion

Ongoing Research

Conclusion

References

Index