Front Cover

Research Methods

Copyright Page

Contents

List of contributors

Acknowledgements

About the editors

About the authors

Foreword

What will you find in this book?

Chapter overviews

References

I: Foundations and Framing

1 Research concepts

Introduction

Research paradigms

Reasoning styles

Positivism

Post-positivism

Interpretivism: Its paradigms and research designs

Interpretivist paradigms

Constructivism

Phenomenology

Interpretivist research designs

Critical theory

Other conceptual approaches

Qualitative research

Mixed methods research

Matching research questions to appropriate designs

Conclusion

References

2 The fundamentals of research planning

Introduction

Choosing a topic

Hypothesis development and an example of hypothesis use

Hypotheses: Definitions and types

An example of hypothesis use from the literature

Formulating research questions and matching them to methodologies

Questions and methodology for a positivist/quantitative study

Borgman, Hirsh, Walter and Gallagher (1995)

Methodology

Findings and conclusions

Possible alternative approaches

Questions and methodologies for interpretivist/qualitative studies

(1) Bruce, Stoodley and Pham’s (2009) phenomenographic study

Methodology

Findings and conclusions

Possible alternative approaches

(2) Williamson’s and Williamson and Kingsford Smith’s mixed methods

Methodology

The quantitative component

The qualitative component

Findings and conclusions

Possible alternative approaches

Questions and methodology for a critical ethnography (based on critical theory)

Methodology

Possible alternative approaches

The literature review

Undertaking a literature search

Basic steps for writing a literature review

Theoretical frameworks

Theory development

An example of theory development

An example of concept mapping

Conclusion

References

3 Information research: Patterns and practice

Introduction

Information research dimensions

What is information research?

Academic and professional research

Issues of research quantity and quality

Other methods of identifying research strengths and approaches

Constants and fashions in research topic choices

Human information behaviour research

Theories of information behaviour

Information management research in organisations

Research sharing across disciplines and collaboration

The role of research in professional practice

Importance of research to professional practice

Evidence-based library and information practice (EBLIP)

The axiomatic relationship between research and professional practice

Research dissemination

Research dissemination practices

Scholarly communication and open access: The role of researchers

Impacts of information technology

Technological opportunities

Transformations resulting from IT

Resisting technological determinism

Conclusion

References

4 Archival and recordkeeping research: Past, present and future

Introduction

Historical developments, current trends, future directions

Growing diversity of research themes

Expanding research front

Archival theory and model building

Research programs and research infrastructure

Research education

Targeted research agendas and funding programs

Scholarly venues

Evolving research ethos and culture

Philosophical and theoretical frameworks for research

Positivism, interpretivism and critical theory

Double hermeneutics

Research methodologies, design, methods and techniques

Methodologies

Methods and techniques

Designing research

Conclusion

References

5 The methodological landscape: Information systems and knowledge management

Introduction

Methodological landscape

The three major research paradigms

Positivist, interpretive and critical research paradigms: Examples from the literature

Developing research question/s

From research questions to selection of methods

Conclusion

Acknowledgement

References

II: Research Methods

6 Survey designs

Introduction

Survey research challenges and issues

Sampling and the ability to generalise in survey research

Creating valid and reliable survey research instruments

Dealing with four potential sources of bias and error

Coverage error

Sampling error

Non-response error

Measurement error

Typical stages in survey research

Broad types of survey

Descriptive (or status) surveys

Advantages and limitations of descriptive surveys

Explanatory (or analytical) surveys

The use of surveys to formally validate, test and build theory

Some particular designs used for explanatory surveys

Static group comparison design

Longitudinal/panel study

Cross-sectional/pseudo-panel design

Advantages and limitations of explanatory surveys

Survey modes

Postal (or mail) surveys

Issues with the administration of postal surveys

Offering incentives to participate

Correspondence associated with a postal survey

Personal interview-based surveys

Issues with the administration of personal interview-based surveys

The recruitment, selection and training of interviewers

Resources required

Undertaking the interviews

Telephone surveys

Issues with the administration of telephone surveys

Issues of sampling and non-response bias

Selection and training of telephone interviewers

Facilities and resources required

Undertaking the telephone interviews

Online surveys

Issues with the administration of online surveys

Sampling issues

Options for developing and hosting an online survey

Online survey design, construction and implementation

Data analysis and reporting

Mixed-mode survey designs

Conclusion

References

7 Case study research in information systems

Introduction

What is case study research?

Types of case study research

Research case studies

Positivist case study research

Interpretivist case study research

Critical case study research

Teaching case studies

Designing case study research

Research problem suited to case study research

Designing and scoping case study research

Unit of analysis

Single and multiple case studies

The use of theory

Data collection and analysis

Conducting case study research

Gaining access to organisations

Efficient and effective collection of data

Writing rigorous case study research reports

Conclusion

References

8 Action research: Theory and practice

Introduction

Defining and positioning action research

The paradigm question

The role of theory

The action research spiral

Designing, undertaking and evaluating action research

Smart Information Use project

Information Literacy (IL) Development in the Electronic Age project

Action research to investigate cognitive processes underlying strategy development

Conclusion

References

9 Constructivist grounded theory: A 21st century research methodology

Introduction

The development of grounded theory

Aims and areas of exploration

The process of constructivist grounded theory

Data gathering

Memo writing

Coding

Developing categories

Theoretical sampling

Developing theory

Evaluation

Conclusion

References

10 Bibliometric research

Introduction

Background and terminology

Terminology

Eugene Garfield

The role of scholarly communication patterns and disciplinary differences

Bibliometric laws and indicators

Bibliometric laws

Lotka’s law of scientific productivity (1926)

Bradford’s law of scattering (1934)

Zipf’s law of word frequency in long texts (1935)

Bibliometric indicators: Measures of productivity and influence

The impact factor

The h-index

SCImago Journal Rank, CiteScore and SNIP

The Eigenfactor™ and Article Influence

Citation analysis, authorship and content analysis: Study design

Sampling for bibliometric research

Data analysis in bibliometric research

Citation analysis

Citation data

Authorship and affiliation

Author and affiliation data

Content analysis

Content data

Challenges in bibliometric research

Assumptions and limitations of bibliometric research

Conclusion

References

11 Design-science research

Introduction

Goals of design-science research

Undertaking high-quality design-science research

Guidelines approach

Design-theory approach

Design-science research methodology approach

An alternative approach to evaluating design-science research

Evaluating a design-science research process

Evaluating the problem specification

Evaluating the likely contribution to knowledge

Evaluating how the solution was derived

Evaluating design-science research outcomes

Evaluating constructs

Evaluating models

Evaluating methods

Evaluating instantiations

Conclusion

References

12 Researching history

Introduction

The future is not what it used to be

What is history?

Evidence is rarely self-evident

Evaluating the evidence

Detective

Sceptic and verifier

Attributor and disentangler

Clarifier

Storyteller, explainer

Conclusion

References

13 Ethnographic research

Introduction

Ethnography: Frameworks and approaches

Positivist framework

Constructivist framework

Critical ethnography

Postmodern ethnography

Autoethnography

Further comments on contemporary ethnography

Visual and virtual ethnography

Trustworthiness in ethnographic studies

Concerns about, and approaches to, validity in ethnography

Ways of ensuring trustworthiness

Triangulation

Generalisability

Designing and undertaking ethnographic research

Uses of ethnography in information research

Older people: Overcoming barriers to public internet access

Online communities in Saudi Arabia: An ethnographic study

Conclusion

References

14 Experimental research

Introduction

Philosophical paradigms and underpinning concepts

Core concepts

Hypotheses and statistical probability testing

Variables

Reliability

Validity

Experimental and control groups

Randomisation (random assignment)

Experimental design notations

Inferring causation in experimental research

The laboratory experiment (or true experiment)

Particular laboratory experiment research designs

Simple experiment, or randomised two-group design

Pre-test/post-test control group design (or four-cell experimental design, or before-and-after two-group design)

Factorial designs

Strengths and limitations of the laboratory experiment

Field experiments (pre-experimental and quasi-experimental research designs)

Pre-experimental research designs

One-shot case study

One-group pre-test/post-test design

Static group comparison

Strengths and limitations of pre-experimental research designs

Quasi-experimental research designs

Pre-test/post-test non-equivalent control group design

Interrupted time-series design

Regression-discontinuity design

Advantages and limitations of quasi-experimental research designs

Conclusion

References

III: Research Techniques

15 Populations and samples

Introduction

Definition of terms

Types of sampling

Probability sampling

Sample size in probability sampling

Types of probability sampling

(1) Simple random sampling

(2) Systematic sampling

(3) Stratified random sampling

(4) Cluster sampling

Non-probability sampling

The issue of generalisability

Sample size in non-probability sampling

Types of non-probability sampling

(1) Accidental/convenience sampling

(2) Snowball sampling

(3) Quota sampling

(4) Purposeful or purposive sampling

Conclusion

References

16 Questionnaires, individual interviews and focus group interviews

Introduction

Questionnaires

Advantages of questionnaires

Disadvantages of questionnaires

Questionnaire design

Closed questions

Factual questions

Opinion questions

Open questions

Other tips for good questionnaire design

Piloting the questionnaire

Individual interviews

Types of interviews

Structured interviews

Semi-structured and unstructured interviews

Focus group interviews

Advantages and disadvantages of focus groups

Uses of focus groups

Examples of the use of focus groups

(1) The impact on the public library of the retirement of the baby boomers

(2) Generating knowledge and avoiding plagiarism: Smart information use by secondary students

Conclusion

References

17 Observation

Introduction

Types of observation

Structured versus unstructured observation

Structured observation

Usability testing

Unstructured observation

Observation of Saudi Arabian online communities

Observation of GreyPath, an online community for seniors

From non-participation to complete participation

Insider/outsider roles

Participant observation continua

Undertaking observation

Gaining entry to a setting and selecting a sample

Data collection

Note taking

Validity and reliability

Ethical issues

Examples of observation in the information field

Mapping the social activity space of the public library

The role of information for people in the fourth age

Self-observation of an ultrarunner

Conclusion

References

18 Quantitative data analysis

Introduction

Context for discussion: Project management website usage dataset

Data preparation

Data cleaning

Data transformation and integration

Statistical analysis

Descriptive statistics

Describing distributions

Measure of central tendency

Dispersion

Shape

Relationships between variables

Graphical descriptions of data

Reporting descriptive statistics

Examples of descriptive data from the project management website dataset

Overall description of the dataset

Question 1

Question 2

Inferential statistics

Testing for differences between distributions using parametric tests

Examples of parametric tests from the project management website dataset

Question 3

Question 4

Testing for differences between distributions using nonparametric tests

Examples of nonparametric tests from the project management website dataset

Question 5

Question 6

Testing for relationships

Example of a relationship test from the project management website dataset

Question 7

Summary of results of analyses

Conclusion

References

19 Qualitative data analysis

Introduction

Thematic analysis and category coding: An overview

Themes, categories and coding

Steps in identification of categories and themes

Step 1

Step 2

Step 3

Step 4

Step 5

Step 6

Information seeking by online investors: An example of analysis

Qualitative content analysis: An overview

Foundations of content analysis

Qualitative content analysis

Comparison with quantitative content analysis

Steps in qualitative content analysis

Step 1. Focussing research objectives on communications

Step 2. Establishing the frame for the research

Step 3. Selecting the unit of analysis, sampling and coding

Step 4. Developing content categories

Step 5. Protocols for analysis

Step 6. Performing data analysis and preparing the findings

Examples of the use of qualitative content analysis

Discourse analysis: An overview

Varied approaches to discourse analysis

Linguistic discourse analysis

Psychosocial discourse analysis

Critical discourse analysis

Discourse analysis in information studies: A brief overview

Conclusion

References

IV: Research Practice and Communication

20 Ethical research practices

Introduction

Research as an ethical hot-house

The basis of ethical practice

Philosophical underpinnings

The use of ethics codes and policies

Responsibility for research ethics implementation

Intercultural research ethics

Language and ethics

Variations in cultural norms and ethical practice

Human rights, ethics and research

Research phases requiring ethical behaviour

Research planning and design

Collecting data

The management and storage of data

Publication of research data and findings

Ownership and authorship

Peer review

Conclusion

References

21 Managing research data

Introduction

Research data: Forms and sources

Digital data

Why research data need to be managed

Data management planning and processes

Legal, ethical and policy requirements for planning

Pragmatic and practical reasons to plan

The role of researchers

Influences of organisations and other actors

The processes involved

Data management planning tools and resources

Conclusion

References

22 Research writing and dissemination

Introduction

Where to start

The research writing process

Structure

Reviewing the literature

Writing as you research

Study significance

Guides for authors

Formatting, style, and citation

Revising, editing and proofing

Dissemination and publishing

Types of formats

Research reports

Dissertations/theses

Monographs

Edited books and chapters

Journal articles

Conference presentations and papers

Open access

Emerging forms of dissemination

Peer review and ethical writing

Revisions post-review

The ethics of authorship

Conclusion

References

V: Information Research: Reflections on Past and Future

23 The future of information research

Introduction

Research methodology

The past affects the future

The question of rigour

The question of theory

Prophecy: ‘From the lush jungle of modern thought’ (A. D. Hope, 1975)

Paradigms of the future

Qualitative research methods of the future

The advent of ‘big data’

Data collection and analysis techniques or tools

An example of an innovative PhD thesis

Cultural differences in future information research

The complexity of culture

Diverse information environments

The globalisation-nationalism paradox

Research and practice

Practitioners and researchers

The tipping point

Future directions: Both practice-led and practice-leading

Conclusion

References

Concluding reflections: The research journey

Introduction

Question 1: Where do I get my background information and my data?

Question 2: Does my research modelling provide an adequate basis for explaining the phenomena being studied?

Question 3: In developing my research design, have I deliberately allowed for an intervention effect and consequences, if any?

Question 4: How can I ensure that benefit, not harm, will flow from my research?

Question 5: Does my work sufficiently reflect respect for the complexity of my research field and for the contributions of ...

References

Glossary of terms used in research

References

Author Index

Subject Index

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