Chapter
1.3 Atom Probe Tomography
1.4 Atomic Transport Kinetic Measurements
2 Diffusion-Controlled Phase Transformations in Open Systems
2.1 General Review of Flux-Driven Transformations
2.1.1 Flux-Driven Ripening of Cu6Sn5 Scallops During Reaction Cu/Liquid Solder
2.1.2 "Anti-Ripening": Stirring-Driven Dissolution-Recrystallization With Formation of Nanobelts
2.1.3 Flux-Driven Anti-Phase Domains Coarsening During Reaction
2.1.4 Flux-Driven Cellular Precipitation of Porous Lamellar Structures in Cu-Sn Reactions
2.1.5 Flux-Driven Crystallization of Amorphous NiP During Reaction With Tin-Based Solders
2.1.6 Nucleation in Sharp Concentration Gradients
2.1.7 Flux-Driven Nucleation at Interfaces (FDN)
2.1.8 Flux-Driven Self-Regulated Repeating Nucleation in Silicon Nanowires During Point-Contact Reaction With Metallic Nanowires or Nanoparticles
2.1.9 Flux-Driven Ordering
2.1.10 Self-Organization of Two-Phase Structures Under Electromigration and Thermomigration
2.1.11 Hollow Nanostructures Formation and Collapse Driven by Kirkendall Effect [37-39]
2.1.12 Diffusion Induced Bifurcations and Instabilities of Kirkendall Planes [40,41]
2.1.13 Flux-Driven Grain Growth During Deposition [17]
2.1.14 Severe Deformation Induced Formation of Low-Viscosity "Phase" in KOBO Process [42]
2.1.15 Electromigration Induced Grain Rotation Under Electron Wind in Anisotropic Conducting Beta-Tin [43]
2.2 Standard Model of the Simultaneous, Diffusion-Controlled Phase Layers Growth in the Diffusion Couple
2.2.1 The Standard Model for an Arbitrary Number of Intermediate Phases
2.2.2 The Standard Model for Single Intermediate Phase (N=1)
2.2.3 The Standard Model for the Case of Two Intermediate Phases (N=2)
2.3 Flux-Driven Ripening of Cu6Sn5 Scallops During Reaction of Cu Substrate With Liquid Tin-Based Solder
2.3.1 Simplified Model of Monosized Hemispheres
2.3.2 Theoretical Prediction of Liquid Channel Width
2.3.3 Account of Size Distribution - Basic Equations
2.4 Flux-Driven Lamellar Precipitation of Cu6Sn5 into Porous Cu3Sn Structure
2.4.2 Experimental Observations
2.4.3 Thermodynamic Analysis of Possible Transformations
2.4.4 Kinetic Model of the Eutectoid-Like Porous Zone Formation in Open System
2.5 Flux-Driven Nucleation During Reactive Diffusion
2.5.2 External Flux Divergence in Open System - Idea of Flux-Driven Nucleation (FDN)
2.5.3 Nucleation and Growth of Single Intermediate Phase at a/ß Meta-Equilibrium Interface
2.5.4 Nucleation of Single IMC at an Interface in Competition With Diffusion in Neighboring Solid Solutions
2.5.5 Flux-Driven Nucleation of the Second IMC at the Interface to Pure B
3 Thermodynamic-Kinetic Method on Microstructural Evolutions in Electronics
3.2 Thermodynamic Evaluation of Phase Equilibria
3.2.1 Different Types of Equilibria
(iii) Metastable Equilibrium
3.2.2 Different Thermodynamic Diagram Types
Molar Gibbs Energy Diagrams
Diffusion Couples and the Diffusion Path
3.3 Kinetic Considerations
A Physicochemical Approach to Explain the Morphological Evolution in an Interdiffusion Zone
3.4 Thermodynamic-Kinetic Method
3.5 Utilization of the T-K Method in Microsystems Technology
3.5.1 Binary Au-Sn System
3.5.2 Au-Cu-Sn Ternary System
4 Microstructural Evolution by Reaction-Diffusion: Bulk, Thin Film, and Nanomaterials
4.1 Mathematical Formulations for Estimation of the Diffusion Coefficients Utilizing Physicochemical Model
4.2 Estimation of the Diffusion Parameters Following Physicochemical Approach
4.2.1 Growth of a Single Product Phase in an Interdiffusion Zone Between Two Other Compounds
4.2.2 Growth of a Single Product Phase in an Interdiffusion Zone Between Two End-Members of a Diffusion Couple With Phase Mixture
4.2.3 Simultaneous Growth of the Product Phases in an Interdiffusion Zone and the Use of Physicochemical Approach
4.3 Evolution of Microstructure Depending on the Location of Kirkendall Marker Plane
4.4 A Few Examples of Morphological Evolutions and Indications of Diffusion Rates of Components
5 Electromigration in Metallic Materials and Its Role in Whiskering
5.1 Introduction to Electromigration
5.1.1 Fundamental Governing Equations for Electromigration
5.1.2 Performing Electromigration Experiments in Lab
5.1.3 Stress Generation due to Electromigration
5.1.4 Electromigration in Liquid Metals
5.1.5 Electromigration in Alloys or Multielement Material Systems
5.1.6 Effect of Electromigration on Reaction Kinetics
5.1.7 Coupling Between Electromigration and Thermomigration
5.2 Introduction to Whiskering in Tin Coatings
5.2.1 Fundamentals of Whiskering Phenomenon
5.2.1.1 Regeneration of Compressive Stress
5.2.1.2 Mass Transport From Bulk to Whisker Root
5.2.1.3 Identification of Location of Whisker Grain
5.2.1.4 Effect of Service Conditions on Whisker Growth
5.2.1.5 Role of Stress and Stress Gradient
5.2.2 Suppression of Whiskering Phenomenon
5.3 Role of Electromigration in Whiskering
5.3.1 Critical Length for Electromigration-Induced Whisker Growth
5.3.2 Minimizing Electromigration-Induced Whiskering Through Grain Boundary Engineering
6 Diffusion Couple Technique: A Research Tool in Materials Science
6.2 Basic Experimental Procedures Used in Diffusion Couple Method
6.2.1 Preparation of Diffusion Couples
6.2.2 Analytical Techniques and Specimen Preparation
6.3 Derivation of Kinetic Data From Diffusion Couple Experiments
6.3.1 General Considerations: Acquisition of Diffusion Data for Binary Solid Solution Systems
6.3.2 Relations Between Thermodynamic Stabilities and Growth Kinetics of a Binary Stoichiometric Compound
6.3.3 Deficiencies of the Proposed Method
6.4 The Diffusion Couple Technique in Phase Diagram Determination - Revisited
6.4.2 Variations of the Diffusion Couple Method
6.4.3 Error Sources Encountered in the Diffusion Couple Experiments
6.5 A Diffusion Couple Approach in Studying Composition-Structure-Property Relationships in Solid Solution Alloy Systems
6.5.1 Interdiffusion Coefficients and Hardness Profiles in the Ni-Co-Pt System at 1200°C
6.5.2 Screening of Composition Dependent Shape Memory Effect in the TiNi-TiPd System
7 Diffusion-Controlled Internal Precipitation Reactions
7.2 Basic Experimental Procedures Used in Research on Solid-State Internal Reactions
7.2.1 Thermodynamic Activity of an Oxidant Species Imposed by Ambient Environment on the Metal Surface During High-Temperature Interaction
7.2.2 Investigation of Reaction Kinetics
7.2.3 Examination of Reaction Products and Precipitation Zone Microstructure
7.3 Diversity of Forms and Variations of Microstructures Generated by Internal Precipitation Reactions - Selected Experimental Results
7.4 Thermodynamic-Diffusion Kinetics Approach in Evaluating Internal Solid-State Reactions
7.5 Kinetic Analysis of the Internal Precipitation Reactions in Binary Alloys
7.5.1 Simplified Treatment of the Precipitation Kinetics
7.5.2 Wagner's Treatment of Internal Oxidation
7.5.3 Analysis of the Effect of Supersaturation Requirements on Internal Precipitation Kinetics
7.5.4 Variation in Number Density and Size of Precipitates Through the Zone of Internal Reaction
7.5.5 Internal Reactions Involving Low Stability Precipitating Compounds
7.5.6 Transition From Internal to External Oxidation
7.6 Internal Precipitation Reactions as a "Research Tool" for Evaluating Interstitial Transport in Metals
7.7 Deformation Phenomena Accompanying Internal Precipitation Reactions in Metals
8 Diffusion in Nuclear Materials
8.1 Diffusion in Nuclear Fuels
8.1.1 Difficulties in Diffusion Experiments
8.1.2 Diffusion in Metallic Fuels
8.1.3 Diffusion in Ceramic Fuels
8.1.3.1 Diffusion in Oxide Based Fuels
8.1.3.2 Diffusion in Carbide Based Fuels
8.1.3.3 Diffusion in Nitride Based Fuels
8.1.4 Diffusion of Fission Gases
8.2 Diffusion in Clad Materials
8.2.1 Diffusion in Aluminium
8.2.2 Diffusion in Zirconium and Its Alloys
8.2.2.1 Self- and Impurity Diffusion in Zirconium
8.2.2.2 Diffusion in Zirconium Based Alloys
8.3 Diffusion in Structural Materials
8.3.1 Self-Diffusion in Iron
8.3.2 Impurity Diffusion in Iron
8.3.2.1 Diffusion of Chromium in Iron
8.3.2.2 Diffusion of Nickel in Iron
8.3.2.3 Diffusion of Molybdenum and Manganese in Iron
8.3.3 Diffusion in Iron-Nickel System
8.3.4 Diffusion in Ferritic Stainless Steels
8.3.5 Diffusion in Austenitic Stainless Steels
8.3.6 Diffusion in Nickel
8.3.6.1 Self-Diffusion in Nickel
8.3.6.2 Impurity Diffusion in Nickel
8.3.6.3 Diffusion in Nickel Based Alloys
9 The Growth of Silicides and Germanides
9.2 Experimental Procedure
9.3 Growth of Silicides: Bulk Diffusion Couple Versus Thin Film
9.3.1 Growth of Silicide in Diffusion Couple
9.3.2 Link Between Silicide Growth in Diffusion Couple and in Thin Films
9.4 Mechanisms of Formation of Ni Silicides and Germanides
9.4.3 Sequential Versus Simultaneous Growth
9.4.4 Stress During the Formation of Silicide
9.4.6 Texture in Silicides and Germanides
9.5.1 Role of Pt on the Nucleation of NiSi2
9.5.2 Role of Pt on the Kinetics of Formation
9.5.3 Role of Pt on the Formation Sequence
9.5.4 Role of the Intermixed Layer on the First Phase
9.6.1 Diffusion of As in d-Ni2Si
9.6.2 Precipitation of As in θ-Ni2Si
9.7 Formation of Silicide in Transistors
Handbook of Solid State Diffusion: Volume 2
：Diffusion Analysis in Material Applications
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