Chapter
3 - Nanoceramic matrix composites: types, processing, and applications
3.2 Nanostructured composite materials
3.3 Bulk ceramic nanocomposites
3.3.1 Si3N4–SiC nanocomposites
3.3.2 Al2O3–SiC nanocomposites
3.3.3 Nanocomposites based on carbon nanotubes
3.4 Nanoceramic composite coatings
4 - Al2O3-SiC nanocomposites: preparation, microstructure, and properties
4.1.1 Conventional preparation of the composites
4.1.2 Unconventional preparation of the composites
4.2.2 Materials' characterization
4.3 Results and discussion
4.3.1 Polymer decomposition
4.3.2 Thermodynamic analysis of the system
4.3.3 Densification and microstructure
4.3.4 Sinter hot isostatic pressing
4.3.6 Mechanical properties and wear resistance
5 - Advances in manufacture of ceramic matrix composites by infiltration techniques
5.2 Classification of infiltration techniques
5.5 Polymer infiltration and pyrolysis
5.5.2 Preceramic polymers
5.5.3 Polymer infiltration and pyrolysis process description
5.5.4 Advantages and disadvantages of polymer infiltration and pyrolysis
5.6 Chemical vapor infiltration
5.6.2 Types of chemical vapor infiltration processes
5.6.3 Chemical vapor infiltration process description
5.6.4 Advantages and disadvantages of chemical vapor infiltration
5.7 Reactive melt infiltration
5.7.2 Liquid silicon infiltration
5.7.2.1 Liquid silicon infiltration process description
5.7.2.2 Advantages and disadvantages of liquid silicon infiltration
5.7.3 Direct melt oxidation
5.7.3.1 Direct melt oxidation process description
5.7.3.2 Advantages and disadvantages of direct melt oxidation
5.8.2 Slurry infiltration process description
5.8.3 Advantages and disadvantages of slurry infiltration
5.9.2 Sol–gel infiltration process description
5.9.3 Advantages and disadvantages of sol–gel infiltration
5.10 Combined infiltration methods
5.10.1 Combination of slurry infiltration with polymer infiltration and pyrolysis
5.10.2 Combination of slurry infiltration with liquid silicon infiltration
5.10.3 Combination of chemical vapor infiltration with liquid silicon infiltration
5.10.4 Combination of chemical vapor infiltration with polymer infiltration and pyrolysis
5.11 Future trends in fabrication of ceramic matrix composites by infiltration methods
6 - Manufacture of graded ceramic matrix composites by infiltration technique
6.2 Processing and characterization techniques
6.2.1 Synthesis and characterization of graded A/AT and A/CA6 composites
6.2.3.1 X-ray diffraction analysis
6.2.3.2 Grazing incidence synchrotron X-ray radiation
6.2.3.3 Synchrotron radiation diffraction analysis
6.2.3.4 High-temperature neutron diffraction analysis
6.2.3.5 Qualitative and quantitative phase compositions analysis
6.2.3.6 Scanning electron microscopy
6.2.4 Evaluation of mechanical properties
6.2.4.1 Hardness and fracture toughness
6.3 Phase composition profiles and mechanical properties
6.3.1 Phase composition profiles of graded A/AT by XRD
6.3.2 Phase composition profiles analysis of graded A/AT by GISRD
6.3.2.1 Case of α<αc (below the critical angle)
6.3.2.2 Case of α﹥αc (above the critical angle)
6.3.3 Phase composition profiles analysis of graded A/CA6 by SRD
6.3.4 High-temperature neutron diffraction analysis
6.3.5 Study of mechanical properties (hardness and fracture toughness)
6.3.5.1 Vickers hardness of graded A/AT and A/CA6 composites
6.3.5.2 Fracture toughness of graded A/AT and A/CA6 composites
7 - Heat treatment for strengthening silicon carbide ceramic matrix composites
7.1.1 Ceramic matrix composites
7.2 SiC/TiB2 particulate composites
7.3 Sintering of SiC/TiB2 composites
7.4.1 Fracture toughness of sintered SiC/TiB2 composites
7.4.2 Effect of heat treatment on fracture toughness of SiC/TiB2 composites
7.5.1 Fracture strength of sintered SiC/TiB2 composites
7.5.2 Effect of heat treatment on the fracture strength of SiC/TiB2 composites
7.5.3 Effect of TiB2 content on crack formation
8 - Developments in hot pressing (HP) and hot isostatic pressing (HIP) of ceramic matrix composites
8.3 Hot isostatic pressing
9 - Hot pressing of tungsten carbide ceramic matrix composites
9.2 Powder characterization
9.3 Thermal analysis and phase transformation during hot pressing of WC/Al2O3 composites
9.4 Effects of Al2O3 content on the microstructure and mechanical properties of WC/Al2O3 composites
9.4.1 Microstructure evolution
9.4.2 Mechanical properties
9.5 Hot pressing of WC/40vol% Al2O3 composites
9.5.1 Densification analysis
9.5.2 Microstructure evolution
9.5.3 Effects of sintering temperature and holding time on the properties of sintered samples
10 - Strengthening alumina ceramic matrix nanocomposites using spark plasma sintering
10.1.1 Synthesis of Al2O3–Cr2O3/Cr3C2 nanocomposites: chemical vapor deposition and spark plasma sintering
10.1.2 Novel synthesis of ceramic nanocomposite using spark plasma sintering
10.1.2.1 Advantages of spark plasma sintering over other synthesis methods
10.1.3 Analyzing mechanical property of ceramic nanocomposites
10.2 Processing and characterization of Al2O3–Cr2O3/Cr carbide nanocomposites
10.2.1 Sample preparation
10.2.2 Densification using spark plasma sintering
10.2.4 Testing mechanical properties: density, fracture strength, and toughness
10.2.5 Nano-indentation test
10.3 Properties of Al2O3–Cr2O3/Cr carbide nanocomposites
10.3.1 Characterization of fluidized powders
10.3.2 Analysis of density, fracture strength, and toughness
10.3.3 Secondary particles strengthening
10.3.4 Solid solution strengthening
10.3.5 Nano-indentation analysis
11 - Cold ceramics: low-temperature processing of ceramics for applications in composites
11.2 Understanding the heterogeneous structure of ceramic raw materials
11.2.1 Size heterogeneity
11.2.2 Chemical and structural heterogeneities
11.2.3 Heterogeneity in chemical reactivity
11.3 Ceramic products with low energy content: dense aluminous cements
11.4 Ceramic products with low energy content: textured materials
11.5 Ceramic products with low energy content: porous materials
11.6 Ceramic products with low energy content: composite materials
11.6.1 Lime and hemp fibers
11.6.2 Portland cement and hemp fibers
11.6.3 Tape casting of aluminous cement composites
Appendix: basic concepts in rheology
12 - High-performance natural fiber–reinforced cement composites
12.2 Experimental procedure
12.2.1 Sample preparation
12.2.2 Hemp fabric–reinforced cement composites
12.2.4 Hemp fabric–reinforced nanocomposites
12.2.5 Materials characterization
12.2.6 Mechanical properties
12.3 Results and discussion
12.3.1 Nano- and microstructure characteristics
12.3.2 Quantitative X-ray diffraction analysis
12.3.3 Porosity, water absorption, and density
12.3.4 Mechanical properties
12.3.6 Hemp fabric–reinforced nanocomposites
12.3.7 Flexural strength of nanocomposites
12.3.8 Flexural strength of hemp fabric–reinforced nanocomposites
12.3.9 Microstructural analysis
13 - Recent progress in development of high-performance tungsten carbide-based composites: synthesis, characterization, and ...
13.1.2 WC-based composites
13.2 Present research work on WC-based composites
13.3 Strategies to enhance the performance of WC-based composites
13.3.1 Adjust the internal structure
13.3.1.2 Interfacial phase
13.3.1.3 Fiber toughening
13.3.1.5 Dimensional unevenness and complexity of microstructures
13.3.2 Sintering techniques
13.3.2.1 Combined sintering
Sintering of solid powders by hot isostatic pressing
Sintering of solid powders by pulse electric current sintering and spark plasma sintering
13.3.2.2 Sintering parameters
13.4 Typical applications of WC-based composites
13.4.2 Workpiece surface coating
13.4.3 Spray welding powder
13.5 Conclusions and outlook
14 - Double-A layered ceramics
14.2 Experimental procedures
14.2.1 Preparation of Nb2S2C and Ta2S2C
14.2.2 Synthesis of the powders Mo2Ga2C
14.2.3 Synthesis of the film Mo2Ga2C
14.3 Results and discussion
14.3.1.1 Structural properties
14.3.1.2 Elastic properties
14.3.1.3 Electrical resistivity
14.3.2.1 Structural properties
14.3.2.2 Electronic properties
14.3.2.3 Elastic properties
14.3.2.4 Vickers hardness
14.3.2.5 Optical properties
14.3.2.6 Thermodynamics properties
15 - Role of interfaces in mechanical properties of ceramic matrix composites
15.2 Interfaces in ceramic matrix composites
15.2.1 Interfacial structures and bonding mechanisms
15.2.2 Effect of fiber/matrix interface on the mechanical behavior of ceramic matrix composites
15.2.3 Techniques for measuring interface bond strength
15.3 Toughening and strengthening mechanisms in ceramic matrix composites
15.3.1 Toughening mechanisms
15.3.2 Strengthening mechanisms
15.3.3 Criteria for matrix crack deflection/penetration
15.4 Engineering design of interfaces for high strength and toughness
15.4.1 Interfacial coatings for toughening
15.4.1.1 Coating toughness
15.4.1.2 Interfacial roughness
15.4.1.3 Thermal stability
15.4.2 Engineering design of coatings for strengthening
15.4.3 Engineering design of interface and coatings in nanocomposites
16 - Using finite element analysis to understand the mechanical properties of ceramic matrix composites
16.1.1 Element number and type
16.1.2 General principles of finite element analysis
16.1.3 Material properties
16.1.4 Nonlinear analysis
16.2 The use of finite element analysis to study ceramic matrix composites
16.2.1 Lifetime prediction
16.2.2 Adhesion and delamination
16.2.3 Fracture and cracking
16.2.4 Thermal stress and transport behavior
16.2.5 Micromechanical and mechanical behavior
16.2.6 Design process and material behavior
17 - Understanding the wear and tribological properties of ceramic matrix composites
17.3.1 Hydrodynamic lubrication (HL)
17.3.2 Elastohydrodynamic lubrication (EHL)
17.3.3 Thin film lubrication (TFL)
17.3.4 Boundary lubrication (BL)
17.3.5 Mixed lubrication (ML)
17.4.2.1 Abrasive wear by plastic deformation
17.4.2.2 Abrasive wear by fracture
17.4.4 Chemical (corrosive) wear
17.4.5 Fretting and fretting corrosion
17.4.6 Types of particles in wear debris
17.4.6.1 Plate-shaped particles
17.4.6.2 Ribbon-shaped particles
17.4.6.3 Spherical particles
17.4.6.4 Irregular-shaped particles
17.5 Friction and wear of ceramics
17.6 Tribological properties of ceramic matrix composites (CMCs)
17.6.1 Wear of silicon nitride (Si3N4) matrix composites
17.6.2 Tribological behaviour of CMCs with addition of solid lubricants
17.6.3 Wear of CMCs at elevated temperatures
Sources of further information and advice
18 - Understanding and improving the thermal stability of layered ternary carbides and nitrides
18.2 High-temperature stability of Ti3SiC2
18.3 High-temperature stability of Ti3AlC2 and Ti2AlC
18.4 High-temperature stability of ternary nitrides
18.5 Testing the thermal stability of layered ternary carbides
18.5.1 Diffraction characterization techniques
18.5.2 Rietveld analysis, determination of apparent activation energy, and kinetics of thermal dissociation in vacuum
18.6 The high-temperature stability of particular layered ternary carbides
18.6.1 High-temperature stability of Ti3SiC2
18.6.2 High-temperature stability of Ti3AlC2
18.6.3 The influence of TiC and TiSi2 on high-temperature stability of Ti3SiC2
18.6.4 High-temperature stability of Ti2AlN
19 - Advances in geopolymer composites with natural reinforcement
19.2 Experimental procedures
19.2.1 Materials and preparation
19.2.2 Physical and mechanical properties
19.3 Results and discussion
19.3.1 Physical properties
19.3.2 Mechanical properties
19.3.2.1 Flexural strength and flexural modulus
19.3.2.2 Fracture toughness
19.3.3 Microstructure of geopolymer composites
20 - Advances in self-healing ceramic matrix composites
20.2 Understanding oxidation behaviour
20.2.1 General law of oxidation
20.2.2 Parabolic growth rate of a protective oxide scale
20.2.3 Growth and simultaneous volatilization of a protective oxide scale
20.3 Understanding self-healing
20.3.1 Self-healing from the point of view of the matrix
20.3.2 Self-healing from the point of view of the protective coating
20.4 Issues in processing self-healing ceramic matrix composites
20.4.1 Limitations of self-healing in composites with a carbon interphase or carbon fibres and SiC matrix
20.4.2 Requirements for self-healing CMCs
20.5 The design of the interphase and matrix architectures
20.5.1 Available interphase materials
20.5.2 Multi-layered interphase
20.5.3 Internal self-healing
20.5.4 Self-healing matrix
20.5.5 Nano-textured matrices
20.6 Assessing the properties of self-healing ceramic matrix composites
20.6.1 Oxidation and corrosion resistance of the constituents
20.6.2 Thermo-chemical stability of protective boron oxide and borosilicate glassy phases
20.6.3 Oxidation resistance of SiC
20.6.4 Oxidation resistance of boron carbide
20.6.5 Oxidation resistance of the carbide of boron and silicon
20.6.6 Synergy with different constituents
20.7 Testing the oxidation of self-healing matrix composites
20.8 Self-healing silicate coatings
20.8.1 Self-healing protective coatings at ultra-high temperatures
20.9 Modelling self-healing
20.9.1 Oxidation of the interphase
20.9.2 Modelling self-healing inside a composite
20.9.3 Oxidation of complex protective coatings
20.10.2 Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs)
20.10.3 Nuclear applications
20.11 Trends in the development of self-healing composite materials
20.11.1 Enhancement of the thermo-chemical stability of protective oxides
20.11.2 Use of carbon fibres to reinforce a self-healing matrix
20.11.3 Testing in the presence of highly corrosive species
20.11.4 Trends in nuclear applications
21 - Self-crack-healing behavior in ceramic matrix composites
21.2 Material design for self-crack-healing
21.2.1 Nano-composite concept for self-healing
21.2.2 Multi-composite concept for self-healing
21.3 Influence of oxygen partial pressure on self-crack-healing
21.3.1 Active-to-passive transition conditions
21.3.2 Dependence of the strength recovery rate on oxygen partial pressure
21.3.3 Crack-healing kinetics
21.4 Influence of oxygen partial pressure on self-crack-healing under stress
21.4.1 Threshold stress for crack-healing under service conditions
21.4.2 In situ observation of crack-healing under stress
22 - Geopolymer (aluminosilicate) composites: synthesis, properties and applications
22.2 Geopolymer matrix composite materials
22.3 Processing geopolymer composites
22.4 Properties of geopolymers and geopolymer composites
22.4.1 Mechanical and thermal properties of geopolymer matrices
22.4.2 Mechanical and thermal properties of the composites
22.4.2.1 Composites containing discontinuous fibres
22.4.2.2 Composites containing fibre fabrics
22.4.2.3 Composites containing unidirectional fibres
23 - Fibre-reinforced geopolymer composites (FRGCs) for structural applications
23.2 Source materials used for geopolymers
23.3 Alkaline solutions used for geopolymers
23.5 Mechanical properties of FRGCs
23.5.1 Compressive strength
23.5.4 Strain-hardening behaviour
24 - Ceramic matrix composites in fission and fusion energy applications
24.2 Radiation effects on ceramic matrix composite
24.2.1 Processing techniques and typical properties
24.2.2 Radiation effects in SiC
24.2.3 Radiation effects in carbon materials
24.2.4 Radiation effects in SiC/SiC ceramic matrix composite
24.3 Small specimen test technology and constitutive modeling
24.4.1 Power/fuel cycles of fusion energy and roles of ceramic matrix composite
24.4.2 Ceramic matrix composite for structural applications in fusion blanket
24.4.3 Ceramic matrix composite for functional applications in fusion systems
24.5.1 Ceramic matrix composite applications in light water reactor
24.5.2 Ceramic matrix composite in high temperature gas-cooled reactor
24.5.3 Ceramic matrix composite in other advanced nuclear fission systems
24.7 Further sources of information
25 - The use of ceramic matrix composites for metal cutting applications
25.2 Classification of ceramic matrix composites (CMCs) for metal cutting applications
25.2.1 Overview of metal cutting tool materials
25.2.2 Al2O3-based ceramic tool materials
25.2.3 Si3N4 and sialon-based ceramic tool materials
25.2.4 Cermet tool materials
25.3 Strengthening and toughening of ceramic tool materials
25.3.1 Particle-dispersion toughening
25.3.2 Transformation toughening
25.3.3 Whisker toughening
25.3.4 Strengthening and toughening via the use of nanocomposites
25.4 Design and fabrication of graded ceramic tools
25.4.1 Compositional and structural design
25.4.2 Fabrication and characterization of graded ceramic tool materials
25.5 Application of ceramic inserts in the machining of hard-to-cut materials
25.5.1 The essentials of tooling technology for metal cutting
25.5.2 Machining of hardened steels
25.5.3 Machining of high-strength steels
25.5.4 Machining of high-temperature alloys
26 - Cubic boron nitride-containing ceramic matrix composites for cutting tools
26.2 Densification and relative density
26.3.2 Suppression of matrix grain growth due to the addition of cBN
26.3.3 Morphology transformation from cBN to hBN
26.4 Mechanical properties
26.4.1.1 Effect of second phases
26.4.1.2 Effect of indentation loads and phase transformation of cBN
26.4.2 Fracture toughness
26.5 Phase transformation of cBN to hBN
26.6 Conclusion and future trends
27 - Multilayer glass–ceramic composites for microelectronics: processing and properties
27.2 Testing multilayer glass–ceramic composites
27.3 Key challenges in preparing multilayer glass–ceramic composites
27.3.1 Fine line disconnection
27.3.3 Via hole filling issues
27.4 Evaluation of fabricated glass–ceramic substrates
27.4.1 Uneven silver surface and inhomogeneity of grain size distribution
28 - Microfabrication of components based on functionally graded materials
28.2.1 Fabrication procedure
28.2.2 Fabrication of the micromolds
28.2.3 Suspension preparation
28.2.4 Sedimentation test and shrinkage measurements
28.3 Results and discussion
28.3.1 Suspensions stability and green shrinkage behavior
28.3.2 Influence of sintering temperature
29 - Ceramics in restorative dentistry
29.2 Development of ceramics for restorative dentistry
29.3.2 Ceramic materials for pressing or slip casting
29.3.3 Machinable dental ceramics
29.3.4 High-strength dental ceramics
29.4 Dental CAD/CAM systems
29.4.1 Chair-side CAD/CAM systems
29.4.2 CAD/CAM machining centres
29.4.3 New techniques in CAD/CAM
29.5 Clinical adjustments
29.6 Surface integrity and reliability of ceramic restorations
29.6.1 Machining-induced fracture in dental CAD/CAM processes
29.6.2 Machining-induced fracture in clinical adjustments
29.6.3 Reliability of ceramic restorations
30 - Resin-based ceramic matrix composite materials in dentistry
30.2 The development of dental composites
30.3 Composition of dental composites
30.4 Classification of dental composites
30.5 Limitations of dental composites
30.6 The development of nanocomposites
30.7 Indirect dental composites
30.8 Resin-based composite cements
30.9 Environmental factors influencing dental composites
30.9.1 Mechanical degradation
30.9.2 Chemical degradation
30.9.3 Biological degradation
31 - Ceramics in solid oxide fuel cells for energy generation
31.1 Solid oxide fuel cells
31.1.1 Advantages and fundamentals of solid oxide fuel cells
31.1.2 Construction and components
31.2.1 Materials used for electrolyte of solid oxide fuel cell
31.2.2 Fundamentals of ionic conductivity in electrolyte
31.2.3 Preparation of electrolyte
31.3 Anodes of solid oxide fuel cells
31.3.1 Development of anode materials
31.3.2 Microstructure and electrode properties of nickel–yttrium-stabilized zirconia anode
31.3.3 Carbon deposition and sulfur poisoning of nickel–yttrium-stabilized zirconia anode
31.4 Cathode materials of solid oxide fuel cells
31.4.1 Perovskite materials used for solid oxide fuel cell anode
31.4.2 Properties and performance of La1−xSrxMnO3 cathode materials
31.4.3 Preparation of cathode
31.5 Interconnects of solid oxide fuel cell
31.5.1 Function and demands of interconnects
31.5.2 Development of interconnects
31.5.3 Ceramic coating of metallic interconnects
31.6 Sealants of solid oxide fuel cell
Advances in Ceramic Matrix Composites
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