Chapter
2.1.1 Components of Nuclei
2.2 Forces in the Nucleus
2.3 Other Properties of Nuclei
2.4 Elementary or Composite Particles
2.5.1 The Liquid-Drop Model
2.5.3 Unified and Collective Models
3.1.1 Physical Isotope Effects
3.1.2 Spectroscopic Isotope Effects
3.1.3 Phase Equilibrium Isotope Effects
3.1.4 Isotope Effects in the Kinetics of Chemical Reactions
3.1.5 The Isotope Effect in a Chemical Equilibrium
3.1.6 Biological Isotope Effects
3.2 Separation of Isotopes
3.3 Isotope Composition in Nature
3.4 Study of Geological Formations and Processes by Stable Isotope Ratios
3.4.1 Study of the Temperature and Age of Geological Formations
3.4.2 Study of the Hydrological Process by Measuring the Ratio of Oxygen and Hydrogen Isotopes
3.4.3 Changes in the Isotope Ratio of Nitrogen
3.4.4 Isotope Ratios of Carbon
3.4.5 Stable Isotope Ratios in Ecological Studies
4.1 Kinetics of Radioactive Decay
4.1.1 Statistics of Simple Radioactive Decay
4.1.2 Activity and Intensity
4.1.3 Decay of Independent (Mixed) Nuclei
4.1.5 Kinetics of Successive Decay
4.1.6 Radioactive Equilibria
4.2 Radioactive Decay Series
4.3.1 Radioactive Dating by Lead Isotope Ratios
4.3.2 Dating of sediments by 210Pb radioactivity
4.3.3 Radioactive Dating by Helium Concentration
4.3.4 Radioactive Dating by Fission of Uranium
4.3.5 Radioactive Dating by Argon Concentration
4.3.6 Radioactive Dating by 87Rb–87Sr, Parent–Daughter Pairs
4.4 Mechanism of Radioactive Decay
4.4.4 Proton and Neutron Decay
4.4.5 Spontaneous Fission
4.4.6 Isomeric Transition (IT)
5 Interaction of Radiation With Matter
5.2 Interaction of Alpha Particles With Matter
5.2.1 Energy Loss of Alpha Particles
5.2.2 Backscattering of Alpha Particles
5.3 Interaction of Beta Radiation With Matter
5.3.1 Interaction of Beta Particles With Orbital Electrons and the Nuclear Field
5.3.2 Cherenkov Radiation
5.3.3 Annihilation of Positrons
5.3.4 Absorption of Beta Radiation
5.3.5 Self-Absorption of Beta Radiation
5.3.6 Backscattering of Beta Radiation
5.4 Interaction of Gamma Radiation With Matter
5.4.1 Rayleigh Scattering
5.4.4 The Photoelectric Effect
5.4.6 Total Absorption of Gamma Radiation
5.4.7 Resonance Absorption of Nuclei and the Mössbauer Effect
5.5 Interaction of Neutrons With Matter
5.5.1 Discovery of Neutrons
5.5.2 Production of Neutrons
5.5.3 Interaction of Neutrons With Matter
6.1 Kinetics of Nuclear Reactions
6.2 Classification of Nuclear Reactions
6.2.1 Nuclear Reactions With Neutrons
6.2.2 Nuclear Reactions With Gamma Photons
6.2.3 Nuclear Reactions With Charged Particles
6.2.3.1 Nuclear reactions with protons
6.2.3.2 Nuclear reactions with deuterons
6.2.3.3 Nuclear reactions with alpha particles
6.2.4 Thermonuclear Reactions
6.2.5 Nucleogenesis: The Production of Elements in the Universe
6.2.6 Production of Transuranium Elements
6.3 General Scheme of Radionuclide Production by Nuclear Reactions and Radioactive Decay
6.4 Chemical Effects of Nuclear Reactions
7 Nuclear Energy Production
7.1.1 The Main Parts of Nuclear Reactors
7.1.1.1 Fuels of Nuclear Power Plants
7.1.1.2 The Moderator of Nuclear Power Plants
7.1.1.3 Moderator/Fuel Ratio
7.1.1.4 Reflection of Neutrons
7.1.1.6 Regulation of Chain Reactions
7.1.1.8 Containment of Nuclear Reactors
7.1.2 Natural Nuclear Reactors
7.1.3 The First Artificial Nuclear Reactor
7.1.4 Types of Nuclear Reactors
7.1.5 Environmental Impacts of Nuclear Reactors
7.2 Accidents in Nuclear Power Plants
7.3 Storage and Treatment of Spent Fuel and Other Radioactive Waste
7.3.1 Storage of Low- and Intermediate-Level Nuclear Waste
7.3.2 Treatment and Storage of High-Level Nuclear Waste
7.4 New Trends in Nuclear Energy Production
7.4.1 Improvement of the Fission in Nuclear Power Plants
7.4.2 Experiments with Fusion Energy Production
8 Radioactive Tracer Methods
8.1 History of Radioactive Tracer Methods
8.4 Position of the Labeling Atom in a Molecule
8.5 General Methods for the Preparation of Radioactive Tracers
8.5.1 Tracers Received From Radioactive Decay Series
8.5.1.7 Radiotracers from Th-232 Decay Series
8.5.1.8 Recent Applications of Radium and Radon Isotopes
8.5.2 Artificial Radioactive Tracers
8.6 Radioactive Isotopes in Tracer Methods
8.6.3 Isotopes Used in Medical PET
8.6.10 Potassium Isotopes
8.6.19 Gallium and Germanium Isotopes
8.6.21 Radioactive Isotopes of Selenium, Bromine, and Rare Earth Elements
8.6.25 Strontium Isotopes
8.6.28 Rutenium, Rhodium, and Palladium Isotopes
8.6.39 Isotopes of Elements Heavier than Mercury
8.6.40 Transuranium Elements
8.7 The Main Steps of the Production of Unsealed Radioactive Preparations (Lajos Baranyai)
8.7.1 Unsealed Radioactive Preparations Using Reactor Irradiation
8.7.1.1 Isotope Preparations Generated with Thermal Neutron Irradiation
8.7.1.2 Isotope Preparations Generated with Fast Neutron Irradiation
8.7.1.3 Isotope Preparations Generated with Neutron Irradiation Followed by β−-Decay
8.7.1.4 Isotope Preparations Extracted from Fission Products Generated by Neutron Irradiation of Uranium
8.7.2 Unsealed Radioisotope Preparations Based on Cyclotron Irradiation
8.7.3 Quality Control of Unsealed Radioactive Preparations
8.8 Production of Encapsulated Radioactive Preparations (Sealed Sources) (Lajos Baranyai)
8.8.1 The Main Steps of the Production of Sealed Radioactive Sources
8.8.2 Quality Control of Sealed Radioactive Sources
8.9 Facilities, Equipment, and Tools Serving for Production of Radioactive Substances (Lajos Baranyai)
9 Physicochemical Application of Radiotracer Methods
9.1 The Thermodynamic Concept of Classification (Distribution of Radioactive and Stable Isotopes)
9.2 Classification of Tracer Methods
9.3 Physicochemical Applications of Tracer Methods
9.3.1 Solubility Measurements
9.3.2 Measurements of the Rate of Migration, Diffusion, and Self-Diffusion
9.3.2.1 Diffusion in a Solid/Gas System
9.3.2.1.1 Diffusion of 222Rn in Soil
9.3.2.1.2 Diffusion of 203Hg Vapor in Plastic
9.3.2.2 Diffusion in Solid/Solution Systems: Transport of Radioactive Isotopes in Porous Systems
9.3.2.3 Study of the Formation of Surface-Oxidized Layers Using Diffusion
9.3.2.4 Self-Diffusion Studies
9.3.2.5 Self-Diffusion in Solutions
9.3.3 Isotope Exchange Reactions
9.3.3.1 Isotope Exchange in Homogeneous Systems
9.3.3.2 Isotope Exchange in Heterogeneous Systems
9.3.3.2.1 Kinetics of Heterogeneous Isotope Exchanges
9.3.3.2.2 The Kinetics of the Change of the Radioactivity in Red Blood Cells (a2)
9.3.3.2.3 The Kinetics of the Change of Radioactivity in Plasma (a1)
9.3.3.2.4 Transport-Controlled Heterogeneous Isotope Exchange
9.3.3.3 The Empirical Equations of the Heterogeneous Isotope Exchange
9.3.3.4 Paneth’s Method of Surface Determination
9.3.4 Study of Interfacial Reactions
9.3.6 Tracer Techniques in Electrochemistry
10 Radio- and Nuclear Analysis
10.1 Radioactive Isotopes as Tracers
10.1.1 The Measurement of Concentration Using Natural Radioactive Isotopes
10.1.2 Determination of Yield of Separation Reactions by Radioactive Tracers
10.1.3 Solubility Measurements
10.1.4 Radiochromatography
10.1.5 Radiometric Titration
10.1.6 Isotope Dilution Methods
10.1.6.1 The Simple Isotope Dilution Method
10.1.6.2 The Reverse Isotope Dilution Method
10.1.6.3 The Derivate Isotope Dilution Method
10.1.6.4 The Double Isotope Dilution Method
10.1.6.5 Substoichiometric Analysis
10.1.6.6 The Dynamic Isotope Dilution Method
10.2 Radioanalytical Methods Using the Interaction of Radiation with Matter
10.2.2 Analytical Methods Using Irradiations with Neutrons
10.2.2.1 Neutron Activation Analysis
10.2.2.2 Prompt Gamma Activation Analysis
10.2.2.3 Neutron Radiography and Tomography
10.2.2.4 Neutron Scattering/Diffraction
10.2.3 Irradiation with X-Ray and Gamma Photons
10.2.3.1 X-ray Fluorescence Analysis
10.2.3.2 X-ray Diffraction
10.2.3.3 Mössbauer Spectroscopy in Speciation Analysis
10.2.4 Irradiation with Electron and Beta Radiation
10.2.4.1 Transmission Electron Microscopy
10.2.4.2 SEM and Microprobe Analysis
10.2.5 Irradiation with Charged Particles
10.2.5.1 Particle-Induced X-ray Emission
10.2.5.2 Particle-Induced Gamma Emission
11 Industrial Application of Radioisotopes
11.2 Tracer Investigations With Open/Unsealed Radioisotopes
11.2.1 The Principle, Types, and Sensitivity of the Radiotracer Technique
11.2.2 Unsealed Radionuclides Used for Labeling in Industrial Tracer Studies
11.2.3 Exploration of Leaks
11.2.4 Determination of Flow Rates
11.2.5 Measuring Volume and/or Mass of Large Quantities of Substances in Closed Equipment
11.2.6 Investigation of Homogeneity of Mixtures
11.2.7 Characterization of Material Flow and Determination of Chemical Engineering Parameters
11.2.9 Groundwater Flow Studies
11.3 Absorption and Scattering Measurements With Sealed Radioactive Sources
11.3.1 Principle of the Measurements
11.3.2 Sealed Radioactive Sources Used for Measurement
11.3.3 Level Indication of Materials in Tanks
11.3.4 Material Thickness Determination
11.3.5 Material Density Determination
11.3.6 Moisture Content Determination
11.3.7 Industrial Radiography
11.3.8 Geological Borehole Logging With Nuclear Methods
12 An Introduction to Nuclear Medicine
12.1 Fields of Nuclear Medicine
12.1.1 In Vitro Diagnostics
12.1.2 In Vivo Diagnostics
12.1.3 Therapy with Unsealed Radioactive Preparations
12.2 The Role and Aspects of Applying Radiotracers in Medicine
12.2.1 Comparison of Methods for In Vitro Measurement of Concentrations
12.2.2 Measurement of Tracers and Contrast Materials Inside the Organism by External Detectors
12.2.3 Production of Artificial Radionuclides
12.2.4 How Do You Choose Radiotracers for Medical Applications?
12.2.4.1 Selection of Radionuclides for Imaging
12.2.4.2 Are There Radionuclides Emitting Exclusively Electromagnetic Radiation?
12.2.4.3 Chemical Limitations
12.2.4.4 The Use of Positron Emitters for Imaging
12.2.4.5 How Do You Select Radionuclides for In Vitro Applications?
12.2.4.6 Liquid Scintillation Counting
12.2.5 Types of Electromagnetic Radiation
12.2.5.1 What Is the Difference Between Gamma- and X-Rays?
12.2.6 Most Common Radionuclides in Nuclear Medicine
12.2.6.1 Radioisotope Generators
12.2.6.2 Other Radionuclides
12.3 In Vitro Diagnostics with Radioisotopes
12.3.1 Basic Reaction of Immunoassays
12.3.2 Immunometric (“Sandwich”) Assay
12.4 Radionuclide Imaging
12.4.1 Parts of a Gamma Camera
12.4.2 Digital Gamma Cameras
12.4.3 Methods for Emission Imaging
12.4.4 Computer-Aided Processing of Nuclear Medical Images
12.4.4.1 Enhancing Image Quality
12.4.4.2 Obtaining Quantitative Results
12.4.4.3 Information Extraction
12.4.4.5 Composing Whole-Body Images
12.4.4.6 Reconstruction of Spatial (3D) Distribution
12.4.4.7 Advantages of SPECT over CT
12.4.4.8 Limitations of SPECT
12.5 Some Examples of Gamma Camera Imaging Procedures
12.5.1 Thyroid Scintigraphy
12.5.2.1 Bone scintigraphy
12.5.3 Myocardial Perfusion Scintigraphy
12.5.4 SPECT Imaging of Epilepsy
12.6 Positron Emission Tomography
12.6.2 18F-FDG PET Studies with PET-CT
12.6.3 Research Studies Using PET
12.6.3.1 Kinetic Analysis by PET
12.6.4 Imaging Myocardial Metabolism
13 Environmental Radioactivity
13.1 Natural Radioactive Isotopes
13.2 Radioactive Isotopes of Anthropogenic Origin
13.3 Occurrence of Radioactive Isotopes in the Environment
13.3.1 Radioactivity in the Atmosphere
13.3.2 Radioactivity in the Hydrosphere
13.3.3 Radioactivity in the Lithosphere
13.3.4 Radioactive Isotopes in Living Organisms
13.4 Biological Effects of Radiation
13.4.2 Mechanism of Biological Effects
13.4.3 The Natural Background of Radiation
13.4.4 Effects of Radiation on Living Organisms
14 Detection and Measurement of Radioactivity
14.2 Scintillation Detectors
14.2.1 Scintillator Materials
14.3 Semiconductor Detectors
14.4 Electric Circuits Connected to Detectors
14.5 Track and Other Detectors
14.5.1 Cloud Chambers and Bubble Chambers
14.5.3 Solid-State Detectors
14.5.4 Chemical Dosimeters
14.5.5 Detection of Neutrons by Nuclear Reactions
14.6 Absolute Measurement of Decomposition
14.7 Statistics of Radioactive Decay
14.7.1 Statistical Error of Radioactivity Measurement
14.7.2 Correction of Background Radioactivity
Nuclear and Radiochemistry
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