Front Cover

Natural Products and Drug Discovery

Natural Products and Drug Discovery

Copyright

Contents

List of Contributors

Foreword

Preface

I - Traditional Medicine and Drug Discovery

1 - Drug Discovery From Ayurveda: Mode of Approach and Applications

1. AYUSH AND AYURVEDA

2. CHRONOLOGICAL GENESIS OF AYURVEDIC DRUGS FOR THERAPEUTIC APPLICATION

3. FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF PERSONALIZED MEDICINE, GENETIC STUDY, AND APPLIED ASPECTS OF AYURVEDIC PHARMACODYNAMICS

4. CLASSIFICATION OF AYURVEDIC THERAPEUTICS

4.1 Ayurvedic Treatment for the Promotion of Health

4.2 Treatment for the Prevention of Disease

4.3 Curative Management in Ayurveda

4.3.1 Curative Management With Plant Drugs

4.3.2 Metals and Minerals for Curative Management

4.3.3 Animal Products for Curative Management

5. SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH OF AYURVEDA FOR DRUG DEVELOPMENT FROM PLANT SOURCES

5.1 Rasayana Therapy

5.2 Diabetes Mellitus

5.3 Wound-Healing Drugs

5.4 Learning, Memory, and Cognitive Disorders

6. SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH OF AYURVEDA FOR DRUG DEVELOPMENT FROM METALS AND MINERALS

6.1 Drugs From Zinc: Jasada Bhasma

6.2 Iron Therapy in Ayurveda

6.3 Gold Therapy in Ayurveda

6.4 Shilajit: A Unique Molecule of Ayurveda

7. RECOMMENDATION

REFERENCES

2 - Traditional and Folk Medicine as a Target for Drug Discovery

1. INTRODUCTION

2. DIFFERENT TRADITIONAL AND FOLK MEDICINES

2.1 Ayurveda

2.2 Maibaron

2.3 Traditional Chinese Medicine

2.4 Traditional Korean Medicine

2.5 African Medicine (Muti in South and Ifa in West)

2.6 Iranian Medicine

3. TAXOL AS A LEAD TO CANCER DRUG DISCOVERY

4. DEMAND FOR DRUGS FOR LIVER DISORDERS (HEPATIC DISEASE)

5. DEMAND FOR DRUGS FOR DENGUE

5.1 Targeting —and Controlling the Virus

5.1.1 Plant Sources

5.1.2 Compound Sources

5.1.3 Mushroom Sources

5.1.4 Formulations

5.2 Targeting —and Controlling the Vector Mosquito

6. CONCLUSION

REFERENCES

3 - Bioactivity-Guided Phytofractions: An Emerging Natural Drug Discovery Tool for Safe and Effective Disease Manag ...

1. INTRODUCTION

2. WHY DO BIOACTIVITY-GUIDED PHYTOFRACTIONS EXHIBIT PROMISING ALLEVIATION AGAINST DISEASE MODELS

3. SEPARATION, CHARACTERIZATION, AND STANDARDIZATION OF TARGET DISEASE-SPECIFIC BIOACTIVITY-GUIDED FRACTIONS

4. SIGNIFICANCE AND UTILITY OF TARGET-ORIENTED, DISEASE-SPECIFIC, BIOACTIVITY-GUIDED PHYTOFRACTIONS

5. EXPERIMENTAL EVIDENCE IN FAVOR OF BIOASSAY-GUIDED PHYTOFRACTION AS A THERAPEUTIC TOOL

6. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

REFERENCES

4 - Development of Chinese Herbal Health Products for the Prevention of Aging-Associated Diseases

1. MITOCHONDRIAL DYSFUNCTION IN AGING-ASSOCIATED DISEASES

1.1 Cardiovascular Diseases

1.2 Neurodegenerative Diseases

1.3 Osteoporosis

1.4 Dysregulation of Immune Function

2. CONCEPTUAL BASIS OF PREVENTIVE HEALTH IN CHINESE MEDICINE

2.1 Yin-Yang Theory

2.2 Qi and Body Function

2.3 Restoring the Dynamic Balance Between Yin and Yang and Hence the Generation of Normal Qi Using Chinese Tonifying Herbs

3. PHARMACOLOGICAL BASIS OF THE HEALTH-PROMOTING ACTIONS OF CHINESE TONIFYING HERBS

3.1 Yang/Qi-Invigorating Action: Effects on Cellular Energy Metabolism and Mitochondrial Function

3.1.1 β-Sitosterol (Yang-Invigorating)

3.1.2 Ginsenosides (Qi-Invigorating)

3.1.3 Schisandrin B (Qi-Invigorating)

3.2 Yin-Nourishing/Blood-Enriching Action: Effects on Immune and Blood/Circulatory Functions

3.2.1 Oleanolic Acid (Yin-Nourishing)

3.2.2 Catalpol (Blood-Enriching)

4. CHINESE HERBAL TONIFYING FORMULAS

4.1 Wu-Zi-Yan-Zong-Wan (Yang-Invigorating)

4.2 Er-Zhi-Wan (Yin-Nourishing)

4.3 Shengmai San (Qi-Invigorating)

4.4 Si-Wu-Tang (Blood-Enriching)

5. CONCLUSIONS

REFERENCES

5 - Ethnobotany/Ethnopharmacology, and Bioprospecting: Issues on Knowledge and Uses of Medicinal Plants by Moroccan ...

1. INTRODUCTION

2. BRIEF HISTORY OF MEDICAL SCIENCES IN MUSLIM-ARAB CIVILIZATION

2.1 Sciences at a Glance in the Golden Age

2.1.1 Brief History of Medical Sciences

2.1.2 Evolution of Herbal Medical Sciences

3. TRADITIONAL MEDICINE IN MOROCCO

3.1 Current Medical Ethnobiological Studies in Morocco

3.2 Knowledge of Ethnobotany, Ethnomedicine, and Medicinal Plant Uses

3.3 The Trading of Medicinal Plants

4. CONSTRAINTS AND CHALLENGES FACING THE MEDICINAL PLANTS SECTOR

5. CONCLUSION

REFERENCES

6 - Chemotaxonomy of Medicinal Plants: Possibilities and Limitations

1. INTRODUCTION

2. SECONDARY METABOLITES AS GUIDE FOR CLASSIFICATIONS

2.1 Alkaloid in Chemotaxonomy

2.2 Plant Phenol in Chemotaxonomy

2.3 Quinones in Chemotaxonomy

2.4 Glycosides in Chemotaxonomy

3. LIMITATIONS OF CHEMOTAXONOMIC CLASSIFICATION

4. SUMMARY AND FUTURE PROSPECTS

REFERENCES

II - Leads From Natural Products

7 - The Role of Natural Products From Plants in the Development of Anticancer Agents

1. INTRODUCTION

2. NATURAL PRODUCTS AND THEIR ANTICANCER ACTIVITY

2.1 Terpenoids

2.1.1 Mechanism of Action of Terpenoids

2.2 Flavonoids

2.2.1 Mechanism of Action of Flavonoids

2.3 Alkaloids

2.3.1 Mechanism of Action of Alkaloids

3. PLANT-DERIVED ANTICANCER DRUGS CURRENTLY IN USE AND IN CLINICAL TRIALS

3.1 Vincristine and Vinblastine

3.2 Etoposide and Teniposide

3.3 Paclitaxel and Docetaxel

3.4 Topotecan and Irinotecan

3.5 Elliptinium

3.6 Homoharringtonine

4. CELL LINE ABBREVIATIONS

5. CONCLUSION

REFERENCES

8 - Plant Drugs in the Treatment of Osteoporosis

1. INTRODUCTION

2. GLOBAL BURDEN OF OSTEOPOROSIS

3. MARKERS OF BONE METABOLISM

3.1 Markers of Bone Formation

3.2 Markers of Bone Resorption

4. SCREENING ASSAYS FOR OSTEOPOROSIS

4.1 Osteoblast Cultures

4.2 Osteoclast Cultures

4.3 The Ovariectomy Rat Model

5. OSTEOPROTECTIVE PLANT FORMULATIONS

6. ACTIVE CONSTITUENTS FROM PLANTS

6.1 Flavonoids

6.2 Isoflavonoids

6.3 Lignans

6.4 Coumarins

6.5 Alkaloids

6.6 Conclusions

REFERENCES

9 - Phytodrugs and Immunomodulators for the Therapy of Leishmaniasis

1. LEISHMANIASIS

1.1 Overview of the Disease

1.2 Epidemiology

1.3 Life Cycle

1.4 Disease Manifestation

1.4.1 Geographical Classification

1.4.2 Clinical Classification

1.4.2.1 Visceral Leishmaniasis

1.4.2.2 Post–Kala-Azar Dermal leishmaniasis

1.4.2.3 Cutaneous Leishmaniasis

1.4.2.4 Mucosal and Mucocutaneous Leishmaniasis

1.4.2.5 HIV and Leishmaniasis Coinfection

1.5 Immunological Alterations in Host

2. THERAPEUTIC AGENTS FOR LEISHMANIASIS

2.1 Current Antileishmanial Drugs

2.1.1 Pentavalent Antimonials

2.1.2 Amphotericin B

2.1.3 Pentamidine Isethionate

2.1.4 Miltefosine

2.1.5 Paromomycin

2.1.6 Other Medications

2.2 Drug Resistance

2.3 Drug Toxicity and Side Effects

2.3.1 Pentavalent Antimonials

2.3.2 AmpB Deoxycholate

2.3.3 Liposomal Formulation of AmpB

2.3.4 Pentamidine Isethionate

2.3.5 Miltefosine

2.3.6 Paromomycin

2.4 Polychemotherapy for Leishmaniasis

2.5 Herbal Remedies

3. DRUG TARGETS IN LEISHMANIA

3.1 Polyamine Pathway

3.2 Thiol Metabolism

3.3 Sterol Pathway

3.4 Glucose Metabolism

3.5 Proteasome Pathway

4. APPROACHES FOR DRUG SCREENING OF NATURAL PRODUCT LIBRARIES AGAINST LEISHMANIA

4.1 Fluorescence Activated Cell Sorter–Based Assays

4.2 Plate Reader–Based Assays

4.3 Microscopy-Based High Content Assay

4.4 Animal Models Suitable for Drug Discovery and Development

5. PHYTOCHEMICALS WITH ANTILEISHMANIAL AND IMMUNOMODULATORY ACTIVITIES

5.1 Natural Products Drug Discovery

5.2 In Vivo Antileishmanial Phytochemicals

5.3 Antileishmanial Crude Plant Extracts

5.4 Plant Natural Product In Vitro Antileishmanial Agents and Immunomodulators

5.4.1 Alkaloids

5.4.2 Alkanes

5.4.3 Flavonoids

5.4.4 Phenylpropanoids

5.4.5 Quinones

5.4.6 Terpenoids

5.5 Marine and Fungal Natural Products With In Vitro Antileishmanial Activity

5.6 Combination Therapy

6. FUTURE DIRECTIONS AND CONCLUSIONS

REFERENCES

10 - Natural Products Targeting Inflammation Processes and Multiple Mediators

1. INFLAMMATION RESPONSES AND PATHWAYS

1.1 Cellular Changes of Inflammatory Responses

1.2 Signaling Mediators of Inflammatory Responses

2. COMMON MEDIATORS OF INFLAMMATION PATHWAYS

2.1 Eicosanoids

2.1.1 PLA2 and the Production of AA and PAF

2.1.2 COXs and the Production of Prostaglandins, Thromboxanes, and Prostacyclin

2.1.3 5-LOs and the Production of LTs

2.2 Protein Kinase–Mediated IκB Degradation in the NF-κB Pathway

2.3 Inducible NO

2.4 Proinflammatory and Antiinflammatory Cytokines

2.5 Antiinflammatory Drugs Targeting Common Mediators

2.5.1 Glucocorticoids

2.5.2 NSAIDs

2.5.3 Biologics

3. NATURAL PRODUCTS TARGETING THE COMMON INFLAMMATORY MEDIATORS

3.1 Introduction and the Salicylate Story

3.2 Phenolics

3.3 Terpenes

3.4 Alkaloids

3.5 Others

4. ANTIINFLAMMATORY NATURAL PRODUCTS WITH MULTIPLE TARGETS

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Curcumin

4.3 (−)-Epigallocatechin-3-gallate

4.4 trans-Resveratrol

4.5 Quercetin

4.6 Racemosic Acid

5. CONCLUSION

REFERENCES

11 - Biologically Functional Compounds From Mushroom-Forming Fungi

1. ANTIDEMENTIA COMPOUNDS

2. ANTIMETHICILLIN-RESISTANT STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS COMPOUNDS

3. OSTEOCLAST-FORMING SUPPRESSING COMPOUNDS

4. DIARRHEA-CAUSING COMPOUNDS

5. ACETALDEHYDE DEHYDROGENASE INHIBITORS

6. HYALURONAN-DEGRADATION REGULATING COMPOUNDS

7. ACUTE ENCEPHALOPATHY CAUSED BY EATING ANGEL'S WING OYSTER MUSHROOM

REFERENCES

12 - Natural Products in Lifestyle Diseases: In Vitro Screening

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Natural Products in Drug Discovery

1.2 Natural Products: Metabolic Disorders (Diabetes, Dyslipidemia, and Obesity)

1.3 Natural Products: Cardiovascular Disorders

1.4 Natural Products: Hypertension

1.5 Natural Products: Stroke

1.6 Natural Products: Cancer

1.7 Natural Products: Osteoarthritis and Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease

2. SUMMARY

REFERENCES

13 - Common Toxic Plants and Their Forensic Significance

1. HISTORICAL ASPECT OF POISONOUS PLANTS

2. COMMON TOXIC PLANTS

3. IMPACTS OF POISONOUS PLANTS ON GRAZING ANIMALS

4. TOXIC PLANTS OF FORENSIC SIGNIFICANCE

5. DETOXIFICATION OF PLANT POISON

6. THERAPEUTIC USE OF POISONOUS PLANTS

7. CONCLUSION

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

REFERENCES

14 - Role of Stress in Diseases and Its Remedial Approach by Herbal and Natural Products in Stress-Related Disease ...

1. PATHOPHYSIOLOGY OF STRESS RESPONSE

2. IMPACT OF PSYCHOLOGICAL STRESS ON OCCURRENCE OF DISEASES

2.1 Cardiovascular Diseases

2.2 Hypertension

2.3 Diabetes

2.4 Metabolic Syndrome

2.5 Stroke

2.6 Infertility

2.7 Polycystic Ovarian Syndrome

2.8 Pregnancy Outcomes and Miscarriages

2.9 Gastric Ulcer

2.10 Irritable Bowel Syndrome

2.11 Osteoporosis

2.12 Decreased Immunity and Delayed Wound Healing

2.13 Mental Diseases

2.14 Need for Herbal and Natural Drugs in the Management of Psychological Stress

3. HERBAL THERAPY

3.1 Withania somnifera

3.2 Panax ginseng

3.3 Eleutherococcus senticosus

3.4 Magnolia officinalis and Phellodendron amurense Combination

3.5 Rhodiola rosea

3.6 Lavandula angustifolia

3.7 Bacopa monnieri

3.8 Ginkgo biloba

3.9 Ocimum sanctum

3.10 Black Tea

3.11 Green Tea

4. NUTRITIONAL THERAPY

4.1 Vitamin C

4.2 l-Lysine

4.3 l-Ornithine

4.4 Jerte Valley Cherries

4.5 Fish Oil

4.6 Soy Protein

4.7 Casein Tryptic Hydrolysate

4.8 Yoghurt

4.9 Whey Protein

5. CONCLUSION

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

REFERENCES

15 - Antiinflammatory Medicinal Plants: A Remedy for Most Disease Conditions?

1. INFLAMMATION

1.1 Agents That Trigger and Sustain Inflammation

1.2 Mechanism of Inflammation

1.3 Healing of Injured Tissue

1.4 Active Antiinflammatory Constituents in Plants

1.5 Inflammatory Mediator Inhibitors in Plants

1.5.1 Interleukins

1.5.2 Bradykinins

1.5.3 Histamine

1.5.4 Mast Cell Stabilizers

1.5.5 Inducible/Endothelial Nitric Oxide Synthase and Nitric Oxide

1.5.6 Tumor Necrosis Factor Alpha

1.5.7 Prostaglandins

1.5.8 Leukotrienes

1.5.9 Thromboxanes

1.6 Medicinal Plants That Prevent Cell/Tissue Injury

1.6.1 Nutritional Imbalances

1.6.2 Free Radicals

1.7 Cosmetic Effects of Analgesic and Antiinflammatory Medicinal Plants

1.8 The Role of Inflammation in Disease Conditions

2. INFLAMMATION IN DISEASE CONDITIONS

2.1 Alzheimer's Disease

2.2 Asthma

2.3 Cancer

2.4 Cardiovascular Disease

2.5 Inflammatory Bowel Disease

2.6 Rheumatoid Arthritis

2.7 Infection

2.8 Metabolic Syndrome

3. MEDICINAL PLANTS WITH ANTIINFLAMMATORY PROPERTIES

REFERENCES

III - Herbal Drug Research

16 - Techniques and Technologies for the Biodiscovery of Novel Small Molecule Drug Lead Compounds From Natural Products

1. INTRODUCTION

2. BIOLOGICAL RESOURCES AND THE SEARCH STRATEGIES FOR NOVEL DRUG LEAD COMPOUNDS

2.1 Biological Resources With Chemotherapeutic Compounds

2.2 Search Strategies for Novel Drug Lead Compounds

3. LOGICAL FRAMEWORK APPROACHES FOR THE BIODISCOVERY OF SMALL MOLECULE DRUG LEAD COMPOUNDS

3.1 Selecting Biological Materials: Their Identification and Collection Processes

3.1.1 Screening for Major Classes of Biochemicals From Crude Extracts

3.2 Metabolomics Studies of Crude Extracts: A Recent Development

3.3 Techniques for Separation, Isolation, and Structure Elucidation of Natural Products

3.3.1 Purification Tools and Techniques

3.3.2 Tools and Techniques for the Identification and Structure Elucidation of Compounds

3.4 Biological Activity Screening of Crude Extracts and Pure Compounds

3.4.1 In Vitro and In Vivo Antimicrobials Screening Assays

3.4.2 In Vitro and Ex Vivo Antiparasitic Screening Assays

3.4.3 In Vivo Screening Assays for Inflammatory Bowel Diseases

4. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS

REFERENCES

17 - Herb and Drug Interaction

1. INTRODUCTION

2. PHARMACOKINETIC HERB–DRUG INTERACTIONS

2.1 Metabolism of Herbal Drugs by Intestinal Microflora

2.2 Hepatic Metabolism of Herbal Medicines

2.3 Phase I: Metabolism by the Cytochrome System

2.4 Induction and Inhibition of Metabolic Enzymes

2.4.1 Phase I

2.4.2 Phase II Reactions

2.5 Efflux of Drugs Through Efflux Transporters

2.6 Organic Anion-Transporting Polypeptide

3. PHARMACODYNAMIC INTERACTIONS

4. SELECTED CLINICAL HERB–DRUG INTERACTIONS

4.1 Grapefruit Juice

4.2 St. John's Wort

4.3 Ginkgo biloba

4.4 Garlic

4.5 Berberine

4.6 Licorice

5. APPROACHES TO IDENTIFY HERB–DRUG INTERACTIONS

6. CONCLUSION

REFERENCES

18 - Toxicity Studies Related to Medicinal Plants

1. INTRODUCTION

2. TOXICITY STUDIES ARE INDISPENSABLE FOR MEDICINAL PLANTS

3. PREPARATION OF A TEST SUBSTANCE FOR TOXICITY STUDIES

4. TOXICITY STUDIES: GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

4.1 Gross Behavioral Studies [30]

4.2 Conventional Methods for LD50 Determination

5. ACUTE TOXICITY TESTING

5.1 Fixed Dose Procedure [35]

5.1.1 Limitations

5.2 Acute Toxic Class Method [36]

5.3 Up and Down Procedure [38]

5.4 Acute Inhalational Toxicity [39]

5.5 Acute Inhalational Toxicity [40]

5.6 Acute Dermal Toxicity [41]

6. SUBACUTE TOXICITY STUDIES [43]

7. SUBCHRONIC TOXICITY STUDIES (OECD TG 408, 409, 411, 413)

8. CHRONIC TOXICITY STUDIES [52,53]

9. SPECIAL TOXICITY STUDIES

9.1 Acute Eye Irritation/Corrosion Test [54]

9.2 Skin Sensitization Test [55]

9.3 Prenatal Developmental Toxicity [57]

9.4 Neurotoxicity Studies [58]

9.5 Carcinogenicity Studies [59]

9.6 Reproduction Toxicity Studies

REFERENCES

19 - Prebiotics: A Functional Food in Health and Disease

1. GUT MICROBES

2. FACTORS INFLUENCING THE COMPOSITION OF GUT FLORA

3. HEALTH BENEFITS OF PREBIOTICS

3.1 Acute Gastroenteritis

3.2 Cancer

3.3 Mineral Absorption

3.4 Lipid Metabolism

3.5 Distant Effects of Prebiotics

REFERENCES

20 - Cultivation of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants

1. INTRODUCTION

2. SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

3. CULTIVATION OF MEDICINAL AND AROMATIC PLANTS

3.1 Methods of Propagation

3.1.1 Vegetative Propagation (Asexual Propagation)

3.1.1.1 Methods of Vegetative Propagation

3.1.1.1.1 Methods of Natural Vegetative Propagation

3.1.1.1.2 Methods of Artificial Vegetative Propagation

3.1.1.2 Advantages of Asexual Propagation

3.1.1.3 Disadvantages of Asexual Propagation

3.1.2 Seed Propagation (Sexual Propagation)

3.1.2.1 Process of Sexual Propagation (Fig. 20.6)

3.1.2.2 Advantages of Sexual Propagation

3.1.2.3 Disadvantages of Sexual Reproduction

3.2 Factors Affecting Cultivation of Medicinal Plant

3.2.1 Light

3.2.2 Temperature

3.2.3 Atmosphere Humidity

3.2.4 Altitude

3.2.5 Rainfall

3.2.6 Soil

3.2.6.1 Classification of Soil Particles

Clay Soil

Sandy Soil

Loam Soil

Sandy Loam

Silt Loam

3.2.7 Fertilizer

3.2.7.1 Biological Origin Fertilizer

3.2.7.2 Chemical Fertilizers

3.2.8 Greenhouse Effect

3.2.9 Internal Factors

3.2.9.1 Polyploidy

3.2.9.2 Mutation

3.2.9.3 Hybridization

4. OPPORTUNITIES IN DEVELOPING THE MEDICINAL PLANTS SECTOR

4.1 Institutional Support

REFERENCES

21 - Digitization of Traditional Knowledge

1. INTRODUCTION

2. WHY DIGITIZATION OF NATURAL PRODUCTS IS NECESSARY

2.1 Digital Databases on Traditional Knowledge (Web Based)

2.2 Bioinformatics-Guided Approach for Traditional Knowledge

2.2.1 Identification of Traditional Components

2.2.2 Digitization Tool

2.2.3 Biodiversity-Based Databases

2.2.3.1 Biodiversity Databases for All Classes

2.2.3.2 Plant-Based Biodiversity Databases

2.2.3.3 Animal-Based Biodiversity Database

2.2.3.4 DNA Barcode-Based Databases

2.2.3.4.1 Barcode of Life Database

2.2.3.4.2 Korean Barcode of Life

2.3 Metadata Portals

3. BIODIVERSITY ANALYSIS

4. VIRTUAL SCREENING OF NATURAL PRODUCTS FROM DATABASES

4.1 Screening Through Network Pharmacology

4.2 Screening Through Cheminformatics

4.2.1 Analysis of Structural Diversity and Complexity

4.2.2 Structure Promiscuity Index Difference

4.2.3 Chemical Space—Importance and Evaluation

4.2.4 Application of Cheminformatics to Drug Discovery

5. BIOINFORMATICS APPROACH TO THE DIGITIZATION OF KNOWLEDGE ON NATURAL PRODUCTS

5.1 Quality Control of Herbals Using Next Gen Sequencing

5.2 Expressed Sequence Tags

5.3 Simple Sequence Repeats

5.4 Constructing Network Biology Through Chemogenomics

5.5 Network Biology Models—Distance-Based Mutual Information Model

5.6 Quantitative Composition–Activity Relationship Study

5.7 Network Target-Based Identification of Multicomponent Synergy

5.8 Application of the Bioinformatics Approach for Drug Discovery From Traditional Plants

5.9 In Silico Docking

6. INVERTNET

7. SCREENING FROM ACTINOBACTERIA

8. PREDICTION INFORMATICS FOR SECONDARY METABOLOMES

9. BIOINFORMATICS TO NATURAL PRODUCTS THROUGH SYNTHETIC BIOLOGY

10. ESNAPD, A NOVEL WEB-BASED BIOINFORMATICS TOOL

11. DNA BARCODING IN NATURAL PRODUCTS

12. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

REFERENCES

22 - Good Agricultural Practices: Requirement for the Production of Quality Herbal Medicines

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 What Are Good Agricultural Practices?

1.2 Why Good Agricultural Practices?

2. BASIC COMPONENTS OF GOOD AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES

2.1 Hygiene and Cleanliness

2.2 Prevention of Contamination

2.3 Identification

2.4 Efficacy

2.5 Production and Income

2.6 Sustainability

2.7 Documentation and Traceability

2.8 Social and Legal Concerns

3. GOOD AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES FOR MEDICINAL PLANTS

3.1 Identification

3.2 Healthy Propagation Materials

3.3 Agronomic Practices

3.3.1 Soil

3.3.2 Climate

3.3.3 Supply

3.3.4 Harvest

3.4 Good Collection Practices

3.5 Postharvest Processing

3.6 Packaging and Labeling

3.7 Storage and Transportation

3.8 Sanitation

4. QUALITY CONTROL AND GOOD AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES

5. GOOD AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES: ETHICAL AND LEGAL CONSIDERATIONS

6. EPILOGUE

REFERENCES

23 - Fundamentals of Microwave-Based Sample Preparation for Plant-Based Drug Discovery

1. INTRODUCTION

2. FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS

2.1 What Shall Be the Strategy for Plant Selection in the Case of Microwave-Assisted Extraction of Botanicals?

2.2 Is Any Special Preextraction Treatment Necessary for the Raw Material Before Subjecting It to Microwave-Assisted Extraction?

2.3 How Is Microwave-Assisted Extraction to Be Performed and Which Factors Need to Be Optimized and How?

2.4 How Can the Performance of the Microwave-Assisted Extraction Technique Be Monitored and Decisions Taken on the Optimum Set ...

2.5 How Can It Be Ensured That No Thermal Degradation Takes Place at the Optimum Operating Conditions?

2.6 How Is the Mechanism of Accelerated Extraction Phenomenon in the Case of Microwave Treatment Elucidated and How Can Its Com ...

3. KEY REMINDERS FOR MICROWAVE-ASSISTED EXTRACTION OF BOTANICALS

4. CONCLUSION

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

FURTHER READING

Author Index

A

B

C

D

E

F

G

H

I

J

K

L

M

N

O

P

Q

R

S

T

U

V

W

X

Y

Z

Subject Index

A

B

C

D

E

F

G

H

I

J

K

L

M

N

O

P

Q

R

S

T

U

W

X

Y

Z

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