Chapter
1.6. Nanoemulsion Ingredients
1.7. Physicochemical Properties of Nanoemulsions
1.8. Nanoemulsion Characterization
1.9. Applications of Nanoemulsions
Chapter 2: Overview of Nanoemulsion Properties: Stability, Rheology, and Appearance
2.2. Importance of Physicochemical Properties
2.2.1. General Physicochemical Properties of Nanoemulsions
2.2.2. Importance of Physicochemical Properties
2.2.2.4. Release Characteristics
2.2.3. Structure-Function Relationships
2.2.3.1. Droplet Composition
2.2.3.2. Droplet Concentration
2.2.3.5. Physical State of the Droplets
2.3.1. Gravitational Separation
2.3.2. Droplet Aggregation
2.3.4. Chemical Stability
2.4. Rheological Properties
2.4.2. Concentrated Systems
2.4.2.1. No Long-Range Colloidal Interactions
2.4.2.2. Repulsive Interactions
2.4.2.3. Attractive Interactions
2.5.1. Measurements of Optical Properties
2.5.2. Major Factors Influencing Nanoemulsion Color
2.5.2.1. Droplet Size and Concentration
2.5.2.2. Refractive Index Contrast
2.5.2.3. Absorption Spectrum
Part II: Preparation of Nanoemulsions by Low-Energy Methods
Chapter 3: Catastrophic Phase Inversion Techniques for Nanoemulsification
3.2. The Role of Self-Assembly and Interfacial Properties in CPI
3.3. Describing CPI Using Phase Diagrams and Emulsification Maps
3.3.1. Phase Behavior and Its Role in Phase Inversion
3.3.2. Emulsification Maps Representing CPI
3.4. CPI Using Solid Particles
3.5. The Effect of Hydrodynamic Processing and Physicochemical Variables
Chapter 4: Transitional Nanoemulsification Methods
4.2. The Role of PEGylated Nonionic Surfactants on Transitional Emulsification Methods
4.3. Transitional Emulsification Methods, Emulsion Phase Inversion, Spontaneous Emulsification, and Universality of the P ...
4.3.2. Spontaneous Emulsification and the Universality of Transitional Emulsification
4.3.3. Critical Difference Between Spontaneous Nanoemulsions and Microemulsions
4.4. Applications of Transitional Nanoemulsions for Encapsulation of Active Principle Ingredients
Part III: Production of Nanoemulsions by Mechanical Methods
Chapter 5: General Principles of Nanoemulsion Formation by High-Energy Mechanical Methods
5.1.1. The Thermodynamics of Nanoemulsion Formation
5.2. Mechanical Basis for Making and Breaking Droplets
5.2.1. Drop Breakup and the Stress Balance
5.2.2. Flow Regimes: Laminar and Turbulent Flow
5.2.3. Laminar Drop Breakup—The Laminar Viscous Mechanism
5.2.4. Turbulent Drop Breakup—The Turbulent Viscous Mechanism
5.2.5. Turbulent Drop Breakup—The Turbulent Inertial Mechanism
5.2.6. The Influence of Viscosity on Turbulent Drop Breakup
5.2.7. Drop Break-Up Due to Cavitation
5.3. Dynamics of Droplet Formation and Stabilization
5.3.1. From Possible to Probable—Population Balance Modelling
5.3.2. The Rate of Fragmentation
5.3.3. The Importance of Coalescence
5.3.4. Some Additional Complications Related to Hydrodynamics
5.4. Introducing the High Energy Methods
5.4.1. Rotor-Stator Emulsification
5.4.2. High Pressure Valve Homogenization
5.4.5. Membrane Emulsification
5.4.6. Comparing the High-Energy Methods
5.5. Summary and Notes on the Particularities of Nanoemulsion Formation
Chapter 6: Fabrication of Nanoemulsions by Rotor-Stator Emulsification
6.2. Classification of Rotor-Stator Emulsification Devices
6.2.1.1. High-Shear Mixers
6.2.2. Continuous Devices
6.2.2.1. Gear-Rim Dispersing Units
6.3. Modes of Operation of Rotor-Stator Devices
6.4. Engineering Description of Rotor-Stator Emulsification
6.4.1. The Power Density Concept as a Tool to Scale Batch Processes
6.4.2. The Energy Density Concept as a Tool to Compare Continuous Processes
6.5. Strategies to Minimize Emulsion Droplet Sizes
6.5.1. Influence of Process Parameters
6.5.1.1. Rotational Speed
6.5.1.2. Rotor Size and Size Ratio
6.5.1.4. Emulsification Time in Batch Devices
6.5.2. Influence of Formulation Parameters
6.5.2.1. Viscosity of the Continuous Phase
6.5.2.2. Viscosity of Disperse Phase
6.5.2.4. Disperse Phase Ratio
6.5.2.5. Emulsifier Concentration and Adsorption Kinetics
6.6. Examples of the Successful Production of Nanoemulsions in Rotor-Stator Processes
Chapter 7: Fabrication of Nanoemulsions by High-Pressure Valve Homogenization
7.2. Design and Principles of Operation
7.2.2. Geometry, Flowrate and Homogenizing Pressure
7.2.3. Thermodynamic Efficiency
7.2.4. One-Stage or Two-Stage Design
7.3. Drop Fragmentation and Coalescence Mechanisms
7.3.1. Three Approaches for Studying HPH Emulsification
7.3.2. Laminar Shear and the Inlet Chamber
7.3.3. Shear and Turbulence in the Gap
7.3.4. Turbulence in the Outlet Chamber
7.3.6. Coalescence During Emulsification
7.3.7. The Role of Disperse Phase Volume Fraction
7.3.8. The Role of Surfactants and Emulsifiers
7.4. Scale-up and Scale-down
7.4.1. Experimental Insights on the Effect of HPH Scale
7.4.2. Scaling, Fluid Velocity and Pressure Distribution
7.4.3. Fragmentation Mechanisms and Scale
7.4.4. Implications for Scale-up of Nanoemulsion Formation
7.5. Heat Generation and Temperature Rise
7.5.1. Local Increase in Temperature
7.5.2. Product Quality and HPH Temperature Increase
7.6. Suitability for Nanoemulsion Formation
7.6.1. Applications and Required Homogenizing Pressure
7.6.4. Future Perspectives on of HPH Nanoemulsion Research and Development
7.7. Conclusions and Final Remarks
Chapter 8: Fabrication of Nanoemulsions by Microfluidization
8.2. Microfluidizer Elements
8.3. EDS Reduction by Microfluidization
8.4. Factors Influencing the Properties of Nanoemulsions Produced by Microfluidization
8.4.1. Type of Interaction Chamber
8.4.2. Single-Channel to Dual-Channel Microfluidization Method
8.4.3. Rheological Properties of Microfluidized Nanoemulsions
8.4.4. Type of Surfactant or Emulsifier
8.4.5. Recoalescence of Emulsion Droplets During Microfluidization
8.4.6. Residence Time Distributions and Energy Density
8.5. Applications and Recent Developments in Nanoemulsions Produced by Microfluidization
8.6. A Case Study on Production of β-Carotene Nanoemulsions by Microfluidization for Encapsulation Purposes
Chapter 9: Fabrication of Nanoemulsions by Ultrasonication
9.2. A Historical Prospective of UAE
9.3. Advantages and Disadvantages of Ultrasound Emulsification
9.4. Principles of Ultrasonic Homogenization
9.5. Recent Advances in Ultrasound Equipment Design for Nanoemulsification
9.6. Factors Affecting the Efficiency of UAE Process
9.6.1. Effect of Formulation Parameters
9.6.1.1. Type of the Dispersed Phase (Oil)
9.6.1.2. Volume Fraction of the Dispersed Phase
9.6.1.3. Type and Concentration of Surfactants and Other Stabilizers
9.6.2. Effect of Operating Parameters
9.6.2.1. Preparation Method of Coarse Emulsions
9.6.2.3. Ultrasonic Applied Power
9.6.2.4. Ultrasonic Amplitude
9.6.2.5. Ultrasonic Frequency
9.6.2.6. Ultrasonic Temperature
9.7. Storage Stability and Functionality of Ultrasound-Mediated NEs
9.7.1. Physical Storage Stability
9.7.2. Chemical Storage Stability
9.7.3. Functionality of Ultrasound-Mediated NEs
9.8. Conclusion and Further Remarks
Chapter 10: Fabrication of Nanoemulsions by Membrane Emulsification
10.2. Direct ME vs. Premix ME
10.3. Comparison Between Membrane Emulsification and Microfluidic Emulsification
10.4. Comparison Between Membrane and Conventional Homogenization
10.5. Microporous Membranes for Emulsification
10.5.1.1. Fabrication of SPG Membrane
10.5.1.2. Properties of SPG Membrane
10.5.1.3. Surface Modification of SPG Membrane
10.5.2. Polymeric Membranes
10.5.3. Microengineered or Microsieve Membranes
10.6. Equipment for Membrane Emulsification
10.6.1. Batch Cross-Flow Membrane Emulsification
10.6.2. Batch SPG Micro Kits
10.6.3. Membrane Extruders
10.6.4. Rotating Membrane Emulsification Systems
10.6.5. Oscillating Membrane Emulsification Systems
10.7. Prediction of Mean Drop Size in Direct ME
10.7.1. Effects of Transmembrane Pressure and Flux
10.7.2. Effects of Pore Size and Shear Stress
10.7.3. Effect of Surfactant
10.8. Factors Affecting Droplet Size in Premix ME
10.9. Microemulsions vs. Nanoemulsions
10.10. Factors Affecting Formation of Micro/Nanoemulsions via Membrane Emulsification
10.10.1. Direct Membrane Emulsification
10.10.2. Premix Membrane Emulsification
10.11. Preparation of Micro/Nanoemulsions Using Direct ME
10.12. Preparation of Nanoemulsions Using Premix ME
10.13. Production of Nanoparticles from Nanoemulsions Prepared by ME
10.13.1. Hydrogel Nanoparticles
10.13.2. Solid Lipid Nanoparticles
10.13.3. Biodegradable Polymeric Nanoparticles
Part IV: Application of Nanoemulsions
Chapter 11: Applications of Nanoemulsions in Foods
11.2. Nanoemulsion Formulation for Food Applications
11.2.1. Nanoemulsion Properties on Different Length Scales
11.2.3. In Product and In Body Behavior
11.3. Delivery of Bioactive Compounds
11.4. Delivery of Micronutritive Compounds
11.5. Delivery of Flavors and Colors
11.6. Product Structuring
11.7. Antimicrobial Agents
11.8. Conclusions and Perspectives
Chapter 12: Application of Nanoemulsions in Formulation of Pesticides
12.1.1. Background of Pesticides
12.1.2. Current Problems in Application of Pesticides
12.2. Traditional Pesticide Formulations
12.2.1. Emulsifiable Concentrates
12.3. Developments of Pesticide Nanoemulsions
12.3.1. Composition of Pesticide Nanoemulsions
12.3.2. Advantages and Disadvantages of Pesticide Nanoemulsions
12.3.3. Production of Pesticide Nanoemulsions
12.3.3.1. High-Energy Processing Method
12.3.3.2. Low-Energy Processing Method
12.4. Influencing Factors for Formation and Stability of Pesticide Nanoemulsions
12.5. Application Performance of Pesticide Nanoemulsions
12.5.1. Deposition, Diffusion, and Pervaporation of Pesticide Nanoemulsions
12.5.2. Bioactivity of Pesticide Nanoemulsions
12.6. Conclusion and Further Remarks
Chapter 13: Application of Nanoemulsions in Drug Delivery
13.2. Drug Delivery Applications
13.2.2. Parenteral Delivery
13.2.3. Transdermal and Topical Delivery
13.2.4. Intranasal Delivery
13.3. Nanoemulsions for Vaccine Delivery
13.4. Nanoemulsions for Gene Delivery
13.5. Conclusion and Future Prospects
Chapter 14: Application of Nanoemulsions in Cosmetics
14.1.1. Generalities on Nanoemulsions
14.1.2. How Nanoemulsions Meet Cosmetics Needs
14.2. Challenges for Cosmetics Nanoemulsions
14.3. Formulation Processes
14.3.1. High-Energy Process
14.3.1.1. Devices and Processes
14.3.1.2. Formulation Parameters
14.3.2. Low Energy Process
14.4. Controlling Nanoemulsion Stability and Texture
14.4.1. Stability Control
14.4.2. Textures: From Lotions to Gels
14.5. Examples of Cosmetic Applications
14.5.2. Hair Fiber and Scalp
14.5.3. Preservative System for Cosmetic Nanoemulsions
Chapter 15: Application of Nanoemulsions in the Synthesis of Nanoparticles
15.1.1. Definitions and Naming Problems
15.2. Polymer Nanoparticles From Nanoemulsions
15.2.1. Polymers and Copolymers by Miniemulsion (Co)Polymerization
15.2.2. Surface-Functionalized Nanoparticles
15.2.3. Polymer Nanoparticles by Emulsion-Solvent Evaporation and by Ouzo Effect
15.2.4. Polymer Nanocapsules From Nanoemulsions
15.3. Inorganic Nanoparticles From Nanoemulsions
15.3.1. Nanodroplets as Templates for Inorganic Synthesis
15.3.2. Interfacial Precipitation and Crystallization in Nanoemulsions: Formation of Capsules
15.4. Polymer/Inorganic Hybrid Nanoparticles From Nanoemulsions
15.4.1. Encapsulation or Integration of Inorganic Components Within Polymer Particles Prepared in Nanoemulsions
15.4.1.1. Miniemulsion Polymerization
15.4.1.2. Emulsion-Solvent Evaporation
15.4.1.3. Pickering Nanoemulsions
15.4.1.4. Role of Functionalization in Structure Control
15.4.2. Polymer Nanoparticles Formed in Nanoemulsions as Templates for Inorganic Synthesis
15.4.3. Polymer/Inorganic Hybrid Capsules
15.5. Further Applications in Synthetic Processes of Nanoparticles Prepared in Nanoemulsions
15.6. Summary and Perspectives
Part V: Characterization and Analysis of Nanoemulsions
Chapter 16: Characterization of Particle Properties in Nanoemulsions
16.2.2.1. Static Light Scattering
16.2.2.2. Dynamic Light Scattering
16.2.3. Electric Pulse Counting
16.2.5. Ultrasonic Spectrometry
16.2.6. Nuclear Magnetic Resonance
16.3. Particle Concentration
16.3.1. Proximate Analysis
16.3.2. Electrical Conductivity
16.3.3. Density Measurements
16.4.3. Streaming Current
16.4.4. Sedimentation Potential
16.5. Particle Physical State
16.5.1.1. Differential Scanning Calorimetry
16.5.1.2. Differential Thermal Analysis
16.5.1.3. Ultrasonic Spectrometry
16.5.1.4. X-Ray Diffraction
16.5.1.6. Nuclear Magnetic Resonance
16.6. Interfacial Characteristics
Chapter 17: Characterization of Physicochemical Properties of Nanoemulsions: Appearance, Stability, and Rheology
17.2.1. Optical Properties of Nanoemulsions
17.2.1.1. Transmission and Reflectance of Light
17.2.1.2. Absorption of Light
17.2.1.3. Scattering of Light
17.2.2. Quantitative Characterization of Appearance (Instrumental Analysis)
17.2.2.1. Spectrophotometric Colorimeters
Transmission Spectrophotometry
Reflectance Spectrophotometry
17.2.2.2. Trichromatic Colorimeters
17.2.2.3. Impact of Measurement Cells
17.2.2.4. Image Analysis of Color
17.2.3. Qualitative Characterization of Appearance (Sensory Analysis)
17.3.1. Gravitational Separation
17.3.1.2. Characterization
17.3.2. Droplet Aggregation
17.3.2.2. Characterization
17.3.3.2. Characterization
17.3.4. Chemical Destabilization
17.4.1. Rheological Properties of Nanoemulsions
17.4.2. Measurement of Rheological Properties
17.4.2.1. Shear Rheology Measurements
17.4.2.2. Advanced Measurement Methods
17.4.2.3. Empirical Measurement Methods
Chapter 18: Characterization of Gastrointestinal Fate of Nanoemulsions
18.2. Overview of Gastrointestinal Fate of Nanoemulsions
18.3. Changes in Nanoemulsion Properties During GIT Travel
18.3.1. Particle Composition and Structure
18.3.2. Particle Dimensions
18.3.3. Interfacial Properties
18.4. In Vitro and In Vivo GIT Models for Nanoemulsions
18.4.1. Static In Vitro Gastrointestinal Model
18.4.2. Characterization of Changes in Nanoemulsion Properties in GIT
18.4.3. Bioaccessibility and Absorption of Nutrients and Bioactive Agents in GIT
18.4.4. Animal and Human Studies for GIT Fate of Nanoemulsions
18.4.4.1. In Vivo Approaches
18.4.4.2. In Vitro-In Vivo Correlations
Chapter 19: Safety of Nanoemulsions and Their Regulatory Status
19.2. Safety of Nanoemulsions
19.2.1. Nanoemulsion Composition
19.2.2. Nanoemulsion Structure
19.2.3. Interaction of Nanoemulsions With the Biological Systems
19.2.4. Administration Route of Nanoemulsions
19.3. Regulatory Status of Nanoemulsions
19.3.1. Definitions and Current Status
19.3.2. Scientific Suggestions for Nano-Regulations
19.4. Conclusion and Perspectives
Nanoemulsions
：Formulation, Applications, and Characterization
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