Chapter
1.2. NF System Configurations
1.3. BWRO System Configurations
1.4. Seawater System Configurations
1.4.1. Single-Pass SWRO Systems
1.4.2. Two-Pass SWRO Systems
1.4.2.1. Conventional Full-Two-Pass SWRO Systems
1.4.2.2. Split-Partial Two-Pass SWRO Systems
1.4.3. Product Water Quality of Single- and Two-Pass SWRO Systems
1.4.4. Four-Stage SWRO Systems
1.4.5. Two-Stage SWRO Systems
1.4.6. Hybrid SWRO Systems With Multiple Passes and Stages
1.4.7. Three-Center RO System Configuration
Chapter 2: Energy Efficiency of Reverse Osmosis
2.2 Energetics of Desalination
2.2.1 Thermodynamic Minimum Energy
2.2.2 Energy Consumption in Reverse Osmosis With Second Law of Thermodynamics Framework
2.3 Reverse Osmosis Energy Consumption
2.3.1 Membrane Energy Consumption
2.3.1.1 The Solution-Diffusion Model
2.3.1.2 Resistance in the Membrane
2.3.1.3 Resistance From Fouling
2.3.1.4 Kinetics and the Flux/Rejection Trade-off
2.3.2 Module Energy Consumption
2.3.2.1 Spiral Wound Modules
Feed Channel Pressure Drop
Feed Channel Concentration Polarization
Permeate Channel Pressure Drop
2.3.2.2 Hollow Fiber Modules
2.3.3 System-Level Energy Consumption and Efficiency of Power Source
2.4 Conclusion and Future Opportunities
Chapter 3: Environmental Impact and Technoeconomic Analysis of Hybrid MSF/RO Desalination: The Case Study of Al Taweelah A2 ...
3.2 Hybrid Desalination Systems
3.2.1 Hybrid RO Desalination Systems
3.2.2 Hybrid FO Desalination Systems
3.2.3 Hybrid MED Desalination Systems
3.2.4 Hybrid MSF Desalination Systems
3.3 Case Study: Technoeconomic Assessment and Environmental Impacts of Hybridization for Al Taweelah A2 MSF Plant in A ...
3.3.1 Al Taweelah A2 Plant Case Study—Methodology
3.3.1.1 Modeling, Economics, and Environmental Impact of MSF
3.3.1.2 Modeling, Economics, and Environmental Impact of RO
3.3.1.3 Modeling, Economics, and Environmental Impact of Hybrid MSF/RO
3.4 Results and Discussion
3.4.1 Energy Consumption of MSF, RO, and Hybrid MSF/RO
3.4.2 Economics and Water Cost of MSF, RO, and Hybrid MSF/RO
3.4.3 Environmental Impacts of MSF, RO, and Hybrid MSF/RO
3.4.4 Sensitivity Analysis in Hybrid MSF/RO—Impact of Feed Seawater Flow Rate
3.5 Future Prospects of Desalination Technologies
Chapter 4: Trigeneration and Polygeneration Configurations for Desalination and Other Beneficial Processes
4.1.1 Polygeneration With Solar-Driven Multiple-Effect Desalination (MED)
4.1.2 Concentrating Photovoltaic/Thermal Collectors (CPVT)
4.2 Layout of the Systems Investigated
4.2.1 Geothermal Polygeneration Plant (GP)
4.2.2 Biomass Polygeneration Plant (BP)
4.3.1 Energy Model (TRNSYS)
Generic Effects from 2 to 8
4.3.4 Exergoeconomic Model
4.3.4.1 Submodel 1—“Summer Season”
"ACH + HE3 + auxiliaries”
4.3.4.2 Submodel 2—“Winter Season”
4.4.1 Thermoeconomic Analysis Results
4.4.2 Exergy Analysis Results
4.4.3 Exergoeconomic Analysis Results
4.4.3.1 Economic Feasibility of the Renewable Polygeneration System
Chapter 5: Design and Construction of Open Intakes
5.2.1 Types and Configurations
5.2.1.1 Onshore Open Intakes
5.2.1.2 Offshore Open Intakes
5.2.1.3 Colocated Intakes
Potential Colocation Benefits
Potential Colocation Challenges
5.2.2 Selection of Open Intake Type
5.2.2.1 Onshore versus Offshore Intake
5.2.2.2 Wedgewire Screens vs. Conventional Inlet Structure
5.2.3 Selection of Open Intake Location
5.2.4 Minimization of Impingement and Entrainment Impacts
5.2.5 Design Considerations
Underwater Current Survey
Biological (Ecological) Survey
Source Water Quality Profile
5.2.5.3 Offshore Intake Inlet Structure—Design and Construction Considerations
Intake Water Conduit Configuration
Intake Pipeline Materials
5.2.6 Costs of Open Intakes
5.2.6.1 Construction Costs of Onshore Intakes
5.2.6.2 Construction Costs of Offshore Intakes
Chapter 6: Design and Construction of Subsurface Intakes
6.1 Subsurface Intake Systems for Desalination Feedwater Supply
6.1.1 Vertical Beach Wells
6.1.2 Ranney Collector Wells
6.1.2.1 Ranney Collector Well—Sonoma Type
6.1.3 Horizontal Directional Drilling Wells
6.1.5 Subsurface Infiltration Galleries
6.1.5.1 Engineered Beach Gallery
6.1.5.2 Offshore Galleries
6.2 Selected Case Histories
6.2.1 Vertical Beach Wells
6.2.1.1 Al-Birk Desalination Plant, Saudi Arabia
6.2.2 Ranney Collector Wells
6.2.2.1 Salina Cruz, Mexico
6.2.3 Horizontal Directionally Drilled Wells
6.2.3.1 San Pedro del Pinatar, Spain
6.2.4.1 Doheny Ocean Desalination Project-Dana Point California
Dissolved Iron and Manganese in Old Marine Groundwater
6.2.4.2 Monterey Peninsula Water Supply Project
6.2.5 Subsurface Infiltration Galleries
6.2.5.1 Long Beach Pilot Study, California—Beach Gallery
6.3 Subsurface Intake Systems—Advantages and Disadvantages
6.4.1 Findings Related to Subsurface Intakes in General
6.4.2 Findings Related to Subsurface Intakes Using Wells
6.4.3 Findings Related to Infiltration Galleries
Chapter 7: Brine Disposal and Management—Planning, Design, and Implementation
7.2 Desalination Technology
7.3 Environmental Considerations and Rules
7.3.1 Siting of Costal Desalinations
7.4 Brine Discharge Modeling and Design
7.4.1.2 Computational Fluid Dynamics Models
7.4.2 Experimental Models
7.4.2.1 Single-Port Discharges
7.4.2.2 Multiport Diffuser
7.4.2.3 Discharge in Shallow Water
7.4.2.4 Surface Discharge
Chapter 8: Post-Treatment of Desalinated Water—Chemistry, Design, Engineering, and Implementation
8.1.1 Considerations Associated With Desalinated Water Quality
8.1.1.1 Interaction of the Water With the Distribution System
8.1.1.3 Suitability for Irrigation Purposes
8.1.1.4 Possible Detrimental Effects on Downstream Wastewater Treatment Plants
8.1.1.5 Effect on the Quality of Reclaimed Water Used for Agricultural Irrigation
8.1.2 Water Quality Parameters
8.1.3 Chemicals Used for Corrosion Minimization in Water Distribution Systems
8.1.3.1 Post-Treatment Nomenclature
8.1.4 Subjects Not Included in the Scope of this Chapter: Disinfection, Fluoridation, Boron Removal, and Aeration
8.2 Basic Chemical Principles
8.2.1 The Carbonate System
8.2.2 Aqueous—Gaseous Phase Interaction (CO2 Saturation State)
8.2.7 Dolomite Solubility
8.2.8 CaCO3 Dissolution Indices
8.2.9 Main Gaps in Knowledge
8.3 Desalination Post-Treatment Methods: State of the Art
8.3.1 Direct Dosage of Chemicals
8.3.1.1 Dosage of Ca(OH)2 + CO2
8.3.1.2 Dosage of Ca(OH)2 + Na2CO3 or Ca(OH)2 + NaHCO3
8.3.1.3 Dosage of CaCl2 + NaHCO3
8.3.1.4 Dosage of Na2CO3 + CO2 or NaOH + CO2
8.3.2 Blending Desalinated Water With Other Water Sources
8.3.3 Calcite Dissolution Processes
8.3.3.1 Acidifying Agents Used to Enhance Calcite Dissolution
8.3.3.2 Final pH Adjustment
8.3.3.3 Unintentional CO2(g) Stripping
8.3.4 Dolomite Dissolution
8.3.5 Sources of CO2 Used in the PT Step
8.4 Innovative Post-Treatment Processes for Attaining Magnesium in the Product Water
8.4.1 Calcite Dissolution Combined With an Ion Exchange Step (IX) (The Calcite Dissolution-IX Process)
8.4.2 Dolomite Dissolution Combined With Calcite Dissolution
8.4.3 A Complementary Step for Addition of Mg2 +, SO42 (and Ca2 +) Through Dosage of Seawater Nan ...
8.4.4 A Complementary Step for Mg2 + Enrichment by Dosage of the Brine Produced Through Seawater Nanofiltration, ...
8.5 Comparison Between PT Methods
8.5.1.4 Buffering Capacity
8.5.2.1 Percentage of Treated Water
8.6 Recent full-scale project experience
8.6.1 The Kantor Desalination Plant
8.6.1.1 Characteristics of the Brackish Water Fed to the Kantor Plant
8.6.1.2 Operation of the Kantor Desalination Plant Post-Treatment Step
Chapter 9: Desalination Concentrate Management and Valorization Methods
9.2 Beneficial Uses of Desalination Brines/Concentrates
9.2.1 Renewable Energy Production
9.2.2 Salts Recovery and Acids/Bases Production
9.2.3 Irrigation and Fertigation
9.2.4 Aquaculture (Fish/Prawn Farming)
9.2.5 Growth of Cyanobacteria (Spirulina)
9.2.6 Integrated Systems: Irrigation and Aquaculture
9.2.7 Algae Cultivation Using DC
9.2.7.1 Using DC for Algae Cultivation Under Laboratory Conditions
9.2.7.2 Using DC for Algae Cultivation at Pilot Scale
9.2.8 Value-Added Product from Algae
9.3 Conclusion and Future Trends
Part 2: Issues in Sustainable Desalination
Chapter 10: Environmental Regulations—Inland and Coastal Desalination Case Studies
10.2 Environmental Impact Regulation
10.2.1 Community Regulations
10.2.2 National Regulations
10.2.3 Regional Regulations
10.3 General Potential Impacts from Desalination Facilities
10.3.1 Impact on the Marine Environment Due to the Brine Discharge
10.3.2 Indirect Impact Due to Energy Use
10.3.3 Impact of Land Use and Visual Disturbance
10.4.1 Case of Study 1: Alicante II SWRO Desalination Plant
10.4.1.1 Analysis of Significant Environmental Impacts and Corrective Measure
10.4.1.2 Environmental Monitoring Plan
10.4.2 Case of Study 2: Santa Eulalia SWRO Desalination Plant
10.4.2.1 Analysis of Significant Environmental Impacts and Corrective Measure
10.4.2.2 Environmental Monitoring Plan
10.4.3 Case of Study 3: El Mojón BWRO Desalination Plant
10.4.3.1 Analysis of Significant Environmental Impacts and Corrective Measure
10.4.3.2 Environmental Monitoring Plan
10.4.4 Case of Study 4: Maspalomas II SWRO Desalination Plant
10.4.5 Case of Study 5: Arucas-Moya SWRO Desalination Plant
Chapter 11: Impacts of Seawater Desalination on Coastal Environments
11.2 The Impact of Desalination Brine Effluent on Zooplankton
11.3 Benthic Bacteria Around the Outfall of Desalination Facilities
11.4 Short- and Long-Term Impact of SWRO Brine-Effluent Discharge on Benthic Bacteria
11.5 Impact of Osmotic Stress on Benthic Meiofauna
11.6 The Effects of Desalination Brine Effluent on Seagrass
11.7 Desalination Brine-Effluent Impacts on Fish Larvae
11.8 The Effects of Desalination Brine Effluent on Corals Physiology
11.9 Looking Forward: Nexus of SWRO Desalination and Coastal Environments
Chapter 12: Microbial Communities in the Process and Effluents of Seawater Desalination Plants
12.2 Desalination Impact on Microbial Communities
12.2.1 Entrainment of Microbial Communities and Their Fate Along the Desalination Process
12.2.2 Impact of Seawater Desalination Discharges on the Coastal Microbial Communities: Results from Laboratory, Mesoc ...
12.2.2.1 Salinity Effects: Mesocosm Study
12.2.2.2 Chemical Discharges Along With Salinity Effects: Mesocosm Study
12.3 Gaps in Knowledge and Outlook
Chapter 13: Impact of Algal Blooms and Their Toxins on Reverse Osmosis Desalination Plant Operations
13.1 Establishing the Presence of Microalgal Toxins in Desalination Intake Waters
13.2 Experimental Investigations Into Microalgal Toxin Removal by RO Membranes
Chapter 14: Social Issues and Public Acceptance of Seawater Desalination Plants
14.2 Potential Impacts of Seawater Desalination
14.3 Public Perception of Seawater Desalination
14.3.1 Perception of Environmental Impacts
14.3.2 Perception of Social Impacts of Desalination
14.3.3 The Influence of Social and Psychological Variables on Attitudes
14.3.4 Institutional Factors Shaping Attitudes Toward Desalination
14.3.5 Management Strategies to Increase Public Support for Desalination
14.4 Research Needs in Public Perception and Desalination
Chapter 15: Environmental Life Cycle Analysis of Water Desalination Processes
15.1.1 Desalination—Energy Nexus
15.2 Desalination Technologies
15.2.1 Technologies and Performance
15.2.2 Reverse Osmosis Desalination
15.2.2.1 RO Desalination Costs
15.2.2.2 Operational Window of RO Membrane and Technologies
15.2.3 Thermal Desalination
15.3 Desalination Processes Powered by Renewable Energy Sources
15.4 Assessment of Desalination Environmental Impact
15.4.1 Environmental Evaluation Tool
15.4.4 GHG Emissions and Embodied Energy of Renewable PV/Wind Source
15.4.5 Energy, Environmental, and Cost Payback Periods of Renewable PV/Wind Source
15.5 Eco-Design and Eco-Optimization of an RO Water Desalination
15.6 Technological Challenges and the Future of Desalination
Sustainable Desalination Handbook
：Plant Selection, Design and Implementation
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