PALMITIC ACID: OCCURRENCE, BIOCHEMISTRY AND HEALTH EFFECTS

PALMITIC ACID: OCCURRENCE, BIOCHEMISTRY AND HEALTH EFFECTS

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Contents

Preface

Chapter 1: Fatty Acids in Vascular Health

Abstract

Introduction

Palmitic Acid Methyl Ester (PAME)

Arachidonic Acid (AA)

Non-Esterified Fatty Acids (NEFAs)

(-3 Fatty Acids

Low-Density Lipoprotein (LDL)

V. High-Density Lipoprotein (HDL)

Fatty Acid Biosynthesis

Fatty Acid Oxidation

The Role of Fatty Acids and Ischemia/Stroke

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 2: Occurrence, Biochemical, Antimicrobial and Health Effects of Palmitic Acid

1Department of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, College of Agriculture, Environment and Nutrition Sciences, Tuskegee University, Tuskegee AL, US

2Department of Chemistry, College of Arts and Sciences, Tuskegee University, Tuskegee, AL, US

Abstract

1.1. Introduction

1.2. Definition, Importance and Potential of Palmitic Acid

1.2.1. Standard Definition of Palmitic Acid

1.2.2. Importance of Palmitic Acid

1.2.3. Potentials of Palmitic Acid

1.3. Occurrence of Palmitic Acid

1.3.1. Distribution in Nature (Plant Sources, Algae, Fungus, Etc.)

1.3.2. Distribution in Human Tissue

1.3.3. Distribution in Animal Tissue

1.4. Physical, Chemical, Stuctural and Functional Properties of Palmitic Acid

1.4.3. Antimicrobial, Antibacterial and Antifungal Properties and Mechanisms Action of Palmitic acid

Antimicrobial Agents

Selected Possible Mechanisms of Action of Palmitic Acid

A. Cell Lysis

B. Inhibition of Enzymatic Activity and Disruption of Electron Transport Chains

C. Impartment of Nutrient Uptake and Release

D. Release of Toxic Peroxidation and Autoxidations Products

E. Palmitoylation and Cell Signaling

F. Phospholipids Synthesis

G. PA Induced Proton Permeability of the Inner Mitochondrial Membrane

1.5. Biochemistry of Palmitic Acid

Metabolism of Palmitic Acid

1.6. Health Implications of Palmitic Acid

Role of Palmitic acid in Inflammatory Pathways

Conclusion

References

Chapter 3: Palmitic Acid: Effect of Diet Supplementation and Occurrence in Animal Origin Food

Abstract

Introduction

Occurrence in Animal Origin Food

Fat, Meat and Meat Products

Milk and Dairy Products

Fish and Other Food of Animal Origin

Effect of Diet Supplementation

References

Chapter 4: General Aspects of Palmitic Acid

Abstract

List of Abbreviations

Introduction

Palmitic Acid

Retynil Palmitate

Occurrence of Palmitic Acid

Palm Oil

Butter

Cocoa Butter

Avocado Oil

Beef Tallow

Lard

Milk

Human Milk

Special Oils

Pequi Tree

Pili Nut Oil

Occurrence of Palmitic Acid Interesterified Foods

Shortenings and Margarines

Cocoa Butter Alternatives

Palmitic Acid in Infant Formulas

Biochemistry of Palmitic Acid

Lipogenesis

Lipolisis

Health Effects of Palmitic Acid

Effects of Palmitic Acid in Serum Lipids and Lipoproteins

Palmitic Acid and Fatty Liver Disease

Palmitic Acid and Diabetes

Conclusion

References

Chapter 5: Palmitic Acid As a Cardiometabolic Risk Factor

Abstract

Introduction

Palmitic Acid Intake, Adiposity and Inflammation

Effect of Palmitic Acid on White Adiposity Tissue Function

Effect of Palmitic Acid in Muscle Cells

Dietary PA -Effects on Cardiovascular Risk Factors

Lipids and Lipoproteins

Insulin Resistance and Diabetes

Dietary PA in Relation with Cardiovascular Disease Risk

Palmitic Acid Proportion in Serum or Tissues in Relation to Cardiometabolic Risk

Conclusion

Acknowledgment

References

Chapter 6: Palmitic Acid in Higher Plant Lipids

Abstract

Introduction

Palmitic Acid Biosynthesis

Further Modifications of Palmitic Acid

Where the Palmitic Acid Occur

TAGs are the Main Source of Palmitic Acid in Plants

Acyl-CoA-Dependent Pathway of TAG Biosynthesis in Plants

Acyl-CoA-Independent TAG Biosynthesis

Peculiarities of TAG Biosynthesis in Plants with Oily Mesocarp

References

Chapter 7: Palmitic Acid in Infant Nutrition

Abstract

Introduction

The Special Structure of Human Milk Fat

Nutrient Absorption

Fatty Acids Blood Profile

Bone Health

Quality of Life

Gastrointestinal Health

Conclusion

References

Chapter 8: Processing of Palmitic Acid and Its Derivatives Using Supercritical Fluids

Abstract

Symbols and Abbreviations

Introduction

Supercritical Fluid Processing

Analysis of Phase Behaviour of Palmitic Acid and Its Derivatives in SCFs

Phase Behaviour Palmitic Acid and Its Derivatives in SC CO2

Published Phase Equilibrium Data

CO2/Palmitic Acid

CO2/Methyl Palmitate

CO2/Ethyl Palmitate

CO2/Tripalmitin

Analysis of Phase Equilibrium Data

Phase Behaviour Palmitic Acid and Its Derivatives in SC Ethane

Published Phase Equilibrium Data

Ethane/Palmitic Acid

Ethane/Methyl Palmitate

Ethane/Ethyl Palmitate

Ethane/Tripalmitin

Analysis of Phase Equilibrium Data

Phase Behaviour Palmitic Acid and Its Derivatives in Supercritical Propane

Published Phase Equilibrium Data

Propane/Palmitic Acid

Propane/Methyl Palmitate

Propane/Ethyl Palmitate

Propane/Tripalmitin

Analysis of Phase Equilibrium Data

Comparison of Supercritical Solvents

The Influence of a Co-Solvent on the Phase Behaviour in Supercritical Solvents

SCFF of Mixed Fatty Acids and Their Derivatives

Phase Behaviour Analysis

Separation Set-Up

SCFF of Palmitic Acid and Its Derivatives from Plant Extracts

Palmitic Acid As a By-Product from Fish Oil Fractionation

SCFF to Separate Palmitic and Other Fatty Acids and Their Derivatives from Other Components

Reduction in Free Fatty Acid Content of Oils

Phase Behaviour Analysis

Published Studies

Separation of Fatty Acids from Tocopherol, Sterols and Other Components

Phase Behaviour Analysis

Published Studies

SCFE of Palmitic Acid Containing Oils from Solid Matrices

SCFE as a Possible Extraction Medium

Possibility of Partial Fractionation

Use of Entrainers

Conclusion

Nomenclature

References

Chapter 9: Palmitic Acid in Tunisian Olive Oil: Updating and Perspective

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Levels of Palmitic Acid in Tunisian Olive Oil

3. Analytical Aspects of Palmitic Acid Determination

Conclusion

Acknowledgments

References

Index