TECHNOLOGICAL PREREQUISITES FOR THE ENERGY AND RAW MATERIALS INDEPENDENCE OF STATE AND CORPORATE ECONOMIES

TECHNOLOGICAL PREREQUISITES FOR THE ENERGY AND RAW MATERIALS INDEPENDENCE OF STATE AND CORPORATE ECONOMIES

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Contents

Preface

Chapter 1: Engines and Antennas in Solar Energy Conversion

Abstract

1. Perfect Solar-Heat Engine

1.1. Introduction

1.2. Solar Energy Conversion

1.2.1. Solar Cell Model

1.2.2. Non-Work Production Conversion

1.3. Reversible Conversion

1.3.1. Conversion during the Carnot Cycle

1.3.1.1. Heat Engine

1.3.1.2. Solar Engine

1.3.1.3. Perfect Solar-Heat Engine

1.3.2. Conversion during Non-Carnot Cycle

1.3.2.1. Solar Engine

1.3.2.2. Heat Engine

1.3.3. Current Densities Balance

1.4. Working Body as a Combination of Matter and Radiation

1.4.1. Conversion without Irrevocable Losses

1.4.2. Conversion with Irrevocable Losses

1.5. Combinations of Reversible and Irreversible Energy Conversions

1.6. Reversible and Irreversible Non-Working Processes Balanced

1.7. Perfect Solar-Heat and Landsberg Engines

1.8. Conclusion

2. Photon Antenna: Quantum and Thermodynamic Features

Abstract

2.1. Antenna States of Absorber Particles

2.2. Antenna Process as Photon Reemissions

2.3. Reversible Photon Antenna

2.4. The Photon Antenna as a Quasistatic Process

2.5. The Photon Antenna as a Non-Working Process

2.6. The Antenna Process in Nature and Technique

2.6.1. Antenna Processes and Radiation Temperature

2.6.2. Antenna Processes and Photon Cutting

2.6.3. The Antenna Process in Plant Foliage

2.7. Conclusion

3. Antenna Design as a Key to the Perfect Solar Conversion

References

Chapter 2: The Photon Antenna in Different Sciences

Abstract

1. Photon Exchange in Atomic Groups

1.1. Introduction

1.2. Photon Antenna: Quantum and Thermodynamic Features

1.3. The Photon Antenna in the Crystal Structure Theory

1.4. Photons and Crystal in the System Theory

2. Photon Absorption in Crystal-Chemical Symbolism

Abstract

2.1. The Photon and Crystal Cell as an Elementary Entity of Matter

2.2. Photon Absorption by the Atoms of a Crystal Cell in MgO

Abstract

2.3. Photon Absorption by Magnesium Film

The Crystal as a Non-Ideal Radiator and Absorber

Equilibrium Frequencies of a Non-Ideal Radiator

Useful Work on the Equilibrium Frequencies

Thermodynamic Calculation of Equilibrium Frequencies

Magnesium Film as a Non-Ideal Absorber

2.4. Absorption Spectra Correlation of Mg in Vapor, Metal, and Oxide

2.5. Absorption Spectra Correlation of Soot, Graphite, and Diamond

2.6. Asymmetric Nanoclusters as Effective Photon Absorber

2.7. Conclusion

3. Predissociation and Crystallochemical Vacancies

3.1. Photon Absorption by a Finite Group of Atomic Particles

3.1.1. Predissociation of Molecules

3.1.2. Prerequisite of Photopredissociation in a Crystal

3.2. Finite Atomic Groups in a Crystal

Abstract

3.2.1. Short-Range Order in Bravais Lattices

3.2.2. The Short-Range Order of a Crystal as Finite Particle Groups

3.3. Particle and Crystallochemical Vacancy in the Nanovoid of an Ideal Crystal

3.3.1. Nanovoids in the Polyhedron Model of an Ideal Crystal

3.3.2. Crystallochemical Vacancy in the Nanovoid of an Ideal Crystal

Abstract

3.4. The Particle and Nanovoid as Two Entities of a Photon Antenna in a Crystal

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 3: Photons as a Working Body

Abstract

1. The Chemical Potential of Thermal Radiation

Abstract

1.1. Introduction

1.2. Thermal Radiation in Thermodynamics

1.2.1. The Fundamental Equation of Thermodynamics

1.2.2. Parameters of Thermal Radiation

1.2.3. Entropy and the Photon Number

1.2.3-addition

1.2.4. The Independence of Parameters for Photon Gas

1.2.5. What Is to Be Solved?

1.3. Potentials and Non-Potentials of Photon Gas

1.3.1. Chemical Potentials of Thermal Radiation and Matter

1.3.1-addition

1.3.2. Internal Energy and the Photon Number

1.3.3. Chemical Potential of Thermal Radiation

1.3.4. Legendre Transformations and the Number of Photons

Number of Photons as an Argument of Characteristic Functions

Legendre Transformations for Internal Energy

Helmholtz and Gibbs Functions, Grand Potential

Internal Energy and Parameters TS, PV, and (N

The Chemical Potential of Thermal Radiation

Zero Chemical Potential of Thermal Radiation

1.3.5. The Equations for the State of Thermal Radiation

1.3.6. Relations of Gibbs–Duhem

1.4. Chemical Potential in Quantum Theory

1.4.1. Quantum Effects and the Chemical Potential

1.4.2. Example Using the Temperature Dependence of the Chemical Potential of Thermal Radiation

1.4.3. Chemical Potential in Bose–Einstein Statistics

1.5. Conclusion

2. Perfect Carnot Engine-Reactor

Abstract

2.1. Introduction

2.2. Thermodynamic Scale for the Efficiency of the Chemical Action of Solar Radiation

2.3. The Efficiency of the Carnot Engine-Reactor

2.4. Conclusion

3. The Efficiency of Photosynthesis in Plant Cells

Conclusion

References

Chapter 4: Photon Gas and Condensate: Phase Transparency

Abstract

1. Geometry in the Thermodynamic Gibbs Method

1.1. Geometry of Tangency for the Thermodynamic Gibbs Surface

1.2. Geometry of Thermodynamic Equilibrium

2. Thermal Radiation and Condensate

Abstract

2.1. Thermodynamics of Thermal Radiation

2.1.1. Clapeyron Equation

2.1.2. The Phases Rule for Photons

2.2. The Absorbance and Transparency of Bodies

2.2.1. The Mechanical Equilibrium and Transparency of Photonic Condensate

2.2.2. Thermodynamic Equilibrium between Photon Gas and Condensate

2.3. Refracting Photon Condensate

2.3.1. Equilibrium Conditions

2.3.2. Entropy and Energy

2.3.3. Cooling of the Refracting Condensate

2.4. Absolute Transparent Photonic Condensate

2.4.1. Equilibrium Conditions

2.4.2. Pressure and Energy

2.4.3. Energy Degeneracy of the Condensate

2.4.4. Amount of Photons and an Absolutely Transparent Condensate

2.4.5. Cooling of the Absolutely Transparent Condensate

3. Thermodynamic Stability of Photonic Condensates

3.1. Gibbs Criterion of Stability

Scenario 1i

Scenario 2i

Scenario 3i

Scenario 1j

Scenario 2j

Scenario 3j

3.4. Compensation and the Inertial Motion of a Condensate

3.5. Conclusion

4. The Photonic Condensate

4.1. Introduction

4.2. Adiabatic and Adiabaric Processes

4.3. Photon Gas and Condensate under Zero Pressure

5. Photon Gas under Alternating-Sign Pressure

5.1. Photon Gas under Positive Pressure

5.2. Photon Gas under Zero Pressure

5.3. Photon Gas under Negative Pressure

6. Absolutely Transparent Photonic Condensate in the Universe

Abstract

6.1. Introduction

6.2. Chemical Potential of Absolutely Transparent Photonic Condensate

6.3. The Quasiphoton as a Particle of Absolutely Transparent Photonic Condensate

6.4. Relic Radiation and Absolutely Transparent Condensate

Conclusion

References

Chapter 5: Interpenetrating Non-Photon Phases

Abstract

1. Homogeneous Non-Photon Phase Equilibrium

Abstract

1.1. Introduction

1.2. Intersecting Tangents in U, S, and V Space

1.3. Usual and Unusual Media

1.4. Inertial Motion and Phase Rule

1.5. Gibbs Criterion for Equilibrium

1.5.1. Equilibriums of Usual Media

1.5.2. Equilibriums of Unusual Media

1.6. Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Phase Equilibrium

1.7. Non-Photon Interpenetrating Phases

2. Chemical Activation during Homogeneous Phase Equilibrium

Abstract

2.1. Introduction

2.3. Tension and Compression Phases

2.4. Chemical Activation of Tension and Compression Phases

2.5. Nitrogen Oxidation in the Phase of Tension

2.6. Technological Access of Tension Phases

3. The Living Cell Cytosol as a Thermodynamic Medium

3.1. Introduction

3.2. Basic Thermodynamic Definitions

3.2.1. Cytosol as a Thermodynamic Medium

3.2.2. Cytosol as a Usual Medium

3.2.3. Cytosol as an Unusual Medium

3.2.4. Cytosol in a State of Equilibrium

3.2.5. Cytosol under Inertial Motion

3.2.6. Cytosol as a System with Finite Energy

3.3. Cytosol as a Homogeneous Phase Equilibrium

3.3.1. Cytosol and Zero Isobar

3.3.2. Parameter α in a Biological Experiment

3.3.3. Radiation in a Biological Experiment

References

Chapter 6: Structure and Electrical Properties of Metallic Micro- and Nanocluster-Based Contacts for Highly Effective Photovoltaic Devices

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Metallization of Electrical Contacts for Solar Cells

3. The Solar Cell as an Object of Investigation

4. Cu-Metallization from a Water Solution

4.1. Basic Reference Data

4.2. Experimental Cu-Metallization

5. Results and Discussion

Conclusion

References

Authors’ Contact Information

Index