Chapter
Introduction: Coastal Disasters and Climate Change in Vietnam
I.1 Need for Better Coastal Planning for Sustainable Coastal Development
I.2 Vietnamese Coasts and Coastal Disasters
I.3 Vulnerability of Vietnamese Coasts to Climate Change
1 Typhoon, Storm Surge and Coastal Erosion
1 Tropical Cyclones and Storm Surges in Southern Vietnam
1.2 Tropical Cyclones in Vietnam
1.2.1 Review of Past Literature
1.2.2 Track Analysis Using JTWC Data Between 1951 and 2010
1.2.3 Tropical Cyclone Landfall Along the Coasts of Vietnam
1.3 Storm Surges in Vietnam
1.3.1 Review of Past Literature
1.3.2 Storm Surge Simulation
1.3.3 Verification of the Model
1.3.4 Estimation of Storm Surge Height
2 Impacts of Typhoons on the Vietnamese Coastline: A Case Study of Hai Hau Beach and Ly Hoa Beach
2.2 Typhoons and Their Impact
2.2.2.1 Maximum Wind Speed
2.2.2.2 Significant Wave Height
2.2.2.3 Peak Wave Frequency
2.2.3 Wave Height Reduction
2.4 Analysis of Typhoon Impact
2.5 Effects of Climate Change on Typhoons
2.5.1 Changes in Physical Properties of Typhoons
2.5.2 Consequences for the Coastal Areas of Vietnam
3 Coastline and River Mouth Evolution in the Central Part of the Red River Delta
3.3 Socioeconomic Conditions
3.4 Physical Setting and Hydrometeorological Parameters
3.4.2 Air Pressure and Wind Regime in Coastal Zone
3.4.3 Rainfall and Humidity Regimes
3.4.4.2 Typhoons and surges
3.4.4.4 Nearshore Currents
3.5 The History of RRD Evolution
3.6 Coastline and River Mouth Evolution in Central Part of the RRD
3.6.1 The Period from 1965 to 1989
3.6.1.2 The Coastline Section from Giao Hai (Giao Thuy district–Nam Dinh Province) to Hai Chinh (Hai Hau district–Nam Dinh ...
3.6.1.3 The Coastline Section from Hai Chinh (Hai Hau district–Nam Dinh Province) to Thinh Long Town (Hai Hau district–Nam ...
3.6.2 The Period from 1991 to 2001
3.6.2.2 The Coastline Section from Giao Hai (Giao Thuy district–Nam Dinh Province) to Hai Chinh (Hai Hau district–Nam Dinh ...
3.6.2.3 The Coastline Section from Hai Chinh (Hai Hau district–Nam Dinh Province) to Thinh Long Town (Hai Hau district–Nam ...
3.6.3 The Period from 2001 to 2010
3.6.3.2 The Coastline Section from Giao Hai (Giao Thuy district–Nam Dinh Province) to Hai Chinh (Hai Hau district–Nam Dinh ...
3.6.3.3 The Coastline Section from Hai Chinh (Hai Hau district–Nam Dinh Province) to Thinh Long Town (Hai Hau district–Nam ...
3.6.4 Chronic Long-Term Erosion at Hai Hau Beach
3.7 Computations of Coastline Retreat at Hai Hau Beach
3.7.1 Data Input Description
3.7.1.1 Deep-Sea Wave Climate
3.7.1.2 Coastline and Nearshore Bathymetry
3.7.2 Modeling of Sediment Transport and Coastline Evolution
3.7.2.1 Preliminary Sediment Transport Calculation
3.7.2.2 Shoreline Evolution Calculation
3.7.3 Computational Grid Specifications
3.7.4 Simulation Procedure in SMS
3.7.5 Computation Results
3.7.5.1 Analyzing Deep-Sea Wave Climate
3.7.5.2 Potential Longshore Sediment Transport Obtained by SEDTRAN
3.7.5.3 Wave Climate Scenarios and STWAVE Modeling
3.7.5.4 GENESIS Model Calibration and Verification
4 Assessment of Vietnam Coastal Erosion and Relevant Laws and Policies
4.3 Present Status of Erosion
4.3.1 Northern Region (from Quang Ninh to Ninh Binh Province)
4.3.1.1 The Coast of Quang Ninh Province
4.3.1.2 The Coast of Red River–Thai Binh Delta (Hai Phong City and Thai Binh, Nam Dinh, and Ninh Binh Provinces)
4.3.2 Central Region (from Thanh Hoa to Binh Thuan Province)
4.3.2.1 The Coast of North-Central Area (Including Thanh Hoa, Nghe An, Ha Tinh, Quang Binh, Quang Tri, and Thua Thien–Hue P...
4.3.2.2 The Coast of South-Central Area (Including Da Nang, Quang Nam and Binh Dinh, Quang Ngai, Phu Yen, Khanh Hoa, Ninh T...
4.3.3 Southern Region (from Ba Ria–Vung Tau to Kien Giang Province)
4.4 Factors Influencing Coastal Erosion
4.4.1.2 Waves and Currents
4.4.1.3 Tropical Cyclones (Storms)
4.4.2.4 Mangrove Deforestation
4.4.3 The Influence of SLR on Coastal Erosion
4.5 Major Solutions for Coastal Erosion
4.5.1 Structural Measures
4.5.2 Nonstructural Measures
4.6 Relevant Laws and Policies for Addressing Coastal Erosion
5 Area Coastal Protection and the Use of Bamboo Breakwaters in the Mekong Delta
5.2.1 Area Coastal Protection
5.3.4 Spatial Arrangement
5.3.5 Bamboo T-Fence Design
5.3.6 Monitoring of Wave Attenuation and Sedimentation
5.3.7 Economic Considerations
6 Risk Analysis and Management in Coastal Regions of Vietnam
6.1 What Is Risk? Risk Definition and Presentation
6.2 Discussion of Risk Measures
6.2.3 Damage (Economic) Risk
6.3 Risk Evaluation and Acceptable Risk in the Coastal Zone of Vietnam
6.3.1 Present Risks due to All Hazards in Vietnam
6.3.2 National Acceptable Risk Levels: Safety Standard for Vietnam
6.3.3 Present Risk due to Traffic Accidents
6.3.4 Historical Loss of Life due to Storms and Floods in Vietnam
6.3.5 Individual Risk due to Coastal Flooding in Vietnam
6.3.6 Societal Risk due to Flood on a Country Level
6.3.7 Evaluation of Flood Risk on a National Scale
6.3.8 Mortality Estimation due to Coastal Flooding
6.4 Case Study: Flood Risk Analysis of Nam Dinh Coastal Zone
6.4.1 Loss of Life Estimates for Nam Dinh Coastal Zone
6.4.2 Population in Flooded Areas and Evacuation
6.4.3 Mortality Estimation
6.4.4 Acceptable Flood Risk for Nam Dinh Coastal Zone
7 Coastal Vulnerabilities in a Fast-Growing Vietnamese City
7.2 Tourism-Induced Coastal Erosion at Mui Ne Town
7.3 Neighboring Coastal Communities Suffering from Coastal Erosion at Phan Thiet
7.4 SLR and Shoreline Retreat
2 Climate Change Induced Disasters
8 Climate Change in the Coastal Regions of Vietnam
8.2 Present-Day Climate in Vietnam
8.2.1.2 Methods to Evaluate the Present Climate Trends
8.2.2 Mean Climate Features in Coastal Regions of Vietnam
8.2.4 Present Climate Trends
8.2.4.1 Temperature Trends
8.3 Future Climate Scenarios for Vietnam
8.3.1 Regional Climate Projections Methods
8.3.1.1 The Statistical Downscaling Approach
8.3.1.2 The Dynamical Downscaling Approach
8.3.2 The 1994 and 1998 Climate Change Scenarios
8.3.3 The 2009 Climate Change Scenarios
8.3.4 The Updated 2012 Climate Change Scenarios
9 Climate Change and Sea Level Rise in the Mekong Delta: Flood, Tidal Inundation, Salinity Intrusion, and Irrigation Adapta...
9.2 Data, Methodology, and Evaluated Results of Simulated Scenarios
9.2.1 Present Flooding and Spring Tidal Innundation in the Mekong Delta
9.2.2 Present Salinity Intrusion in the Mekong Delta
9.2.3 National Climate Change and SLR Scenarios
9.2.4 Hydraulic Modeling for the Mekong Delta Using MIKE11
9.2.5 Evaluation of Simulated Results on Flood and Tidal Inundation Change in the Context of Climate Change
9.2.6 Evaluation of Simulated Results on Salinity Intrusion Change in the Context of Climate Change
9.3 Possible Adaptation Measures for Flood, Tidal Inundation, and Salinity Intrusion Control
9.3.1 Vietnam’s Water Resource Development Viewpoint
9.3.2 Case Study of a Deep Flooding Area in South Vam Nao (Cho Moi District, An Giang Province)
9.3.3 Case Study in a Coastal Zone Area with an Existing Ring Dike: The South Mang Thit Irrigation Project
9.3.4 Case Study of Salinity Intrusion Prevention with Mainstream River Sluice Gates
9.4 Conclusions and Recommendations
10 Possible Impacts of Seawater Intrusion and Strategies for Water Management in Coastal Areas in the Vietnamese Mekong Del...
10.3 Impacts of Seawater Intrusion on Agriculture, Aquaculture, and Forestry in Coastal Plains of the VMD
10.4 Steps Forward: Is There Any Suitable Approach to Sustain the Development of Coastal Areas of the VMD?
11 Tropical Cyclone Damage to Coastal Defenses: Future Influence of Climate Change and Sea Level Rise on Shallow Coastal Ar...
11.2 Coastal Protection Around Vietnam and the Southern Delta
11.2.2 Coastal Revetments and Dikes in Vietnam
11.3 Design of Shallow Water Breakwaters and Coastal Revetments
11.3.1 Sea Level Rise Scenarios
11.3.2 Rubble Mound Breakwaters, Dikes, and Coastal Revetments
11.3.3 Van der Meer Formula
11.3.4 Limiting Breaker Height
11.3.6 Shallow Breakwater Sections and Parameters
11.4 Future Requirement for Shallow Water Coastal Defences
11.5 Case Study of Phan Thiet
12 Investigation on Floods in Can Tho City: Influence of Ocean Tides and Sea Level Rise for the Mekong Delta’s Largest City
12.3 Results and Discussion
12.3.1 Long-Period Oscillations
12.3.2 Short-Period Oscillations
12.3.3 Frequency and Inundation Depth at the Riverbank
13 Tsunami Hazard in Vietnam
13.1 Results of Survey on Tsunamis at the Vietnamese Coast
13.2 Possible Tsunami Sources in the East Sea
13.2.1 Tectonic Plates in the East Sea
13.2.3 Fault at 109°E–110°E
13.2.4 Faults at the Continental Shelf North of the East Sea
13.2.5 Areas with Potential Volcano Eruption and Submarine Landslide
13.2.6 Areas with Potential Submarine Landslides
13.3 Maximum Earthquakes in the East Sea
13.4 Evaluating Tsunami Hazard at the Coast of Vietnam
13.4.1 Numerical Model and Computational Area
13.4.2 Tsunami-Generating Earthquake Scenarios
14 Evaluating Tsunami Risk and Vulnerability Along the Vietnamese Coast
14.2 Evaluation of Tsunami Risk in Vietnam
14.2.1 Historical Tsunami Events
14.2.2 Possible Tsunami Scenarios
14.3 Numerical Simulation of Tsunami Propagation
14.3.1 Geographical Backgrounds
14.3.2 Numerical Settings
14.4 Tsunami Vulnerability in the Vietnamese Coast
14.4.1 Regional Tsunami Risk
14.4.2 Tsunami Vulnerability Analysis
14.4.2.1 Long Areas of Low-Lying Grounds
14.4.2.2 Lack of Past Experience
14.4.2.3 Underdeveloped Tsunami Mitigation Measures
15 Storm Surge and Tsunami Awareness and Preparedness in Central Vietnam
4 Disaster Impacts, Management and Policies
16 Economic Growth and Climate Change Challenges to Vietnamese Ports
16.2 Geography and Population Size
16.2.1 Geographical Zones
16.2.3 Population Distribution
16.3 Socioeconomic Development
16.3.1 Current Development Trends
16.3.2 Economic Structure
16.3.3 Future Population Growth and GDP Projections
16.4 Seaport System in Vietnam
16.5 Ports and Climate Change
17 Mainstreaming Climate Change Adaptation into Vietnamese Development as a New Policy Arrangement
17.2 Mainstreaming CCA into Development Based on the PAA
17.3 Mainstreaming CCA into Development on Three Levels in Vietnam
17.3.1 Mainstreaming at the Macro Level
17.3.2 Mainstreaming at the Meso Level
17.3.3 Mainstreaming at the Micro Level
17.4 Successful Mainstreaming Through the MPD
18 Environmental Displacement in Vietnam
18.2 Sea-Level Rise and Displacement
18.3 Environmental Displacement
18.3.1 Calls for a New Convention to Protect International “Environmental Refugees”
18.3.2 Internal Environmental Displacement
18.4 Vietnamese Migration Policy and Environmental Displacement
18.5 Migration and Environmental Factors in Vietnam
Coastal Disasters and Climate Change in Vietnam
：Engineering and Planning Perspectives
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