Chapter
Chapter 2: Instrument Types and Performance Characteristics
2.2. Review of Instrument Types
2.2.1. Active and Passive Instruments
2.2.2. Null-Type and Deflection-Type Instruments
2.2.3. Analogue and Digital Instruments
2.2.4. Indicating Instruments and Instruments With a Signal Output
2.2.5. Smart and Nonsmart Instruments
2.3. Static Characteristics of Instruments
2.3.1. Accuracy and Inaccuracy (Measurement Uncertainty)
2.3.2. Precision/Repeatability/Reproducibility
2.3.6. Sensitivity of Measurement
2.3.9. Sensitivity to Disturbance
2.3.10. Hysteresis Effects
2.4. Dynamic Characteristics of Instruments
2.4.1. Zero-Order Instrument
2.4.2. First-Order Instrument
2.4.3. Second-Order Instrument
2.5. Necessity for Calibration
Chapter 3: Measurement Uncertainty
3.2. Sources of Systematic Error
3.2.1. System Disturbance Due to Measurement
3.2.2. Errors Due to Environmental Inputs
3.2.3. Wear in Instrument Components
3.3. Reduction of Systematic Errors
3.3.1. Careful Instrument Design
3.3.3. Method of Opposing Inputs
3.3.4. High-Gain Feedback
3.3.6. Manual Correction of Output Reading
3.3.7. Intelligent Instruments
3.4. Quantification of Systematic Errors
3.4.1. Quantification of Individual Systematic Error Components
3.4.2. Calculation of Overall Systematic Error
3.5. Sources and Treatment of Random Errors
3.6. Statistical Analysis of Measurements Subject to Random Errors
3.6.1. Mean and Median Values
3.6.2. Standard Deviation and Variance
3.6.3. Graphical Data Analysis Techniques-Frequency Distributions
3.6.4. Gaussian (Normal) Distribution
3.6.5. Standard Gaussian Tables (z Distribution)
3.6.6. Standard Error of the Mean
3.6.7. Estimation of Random Error in a Single Measurement
3.6.8. Distribution of Manufacturing Tolerances
3.6.9. Chi-Squared (chi2) Distribution
3.6.10. Goodness of Fit to a Gaussian Distribution
3.6.11. Rogue Data Points (Data Outliers)
3.6.12. Student T Distribution
3.7. Aggregation of Measurement System Errors
3.7.1. Combined Effect of Systematic and Random Errors
3.7.2. Aggregation of Errors From Separate Measurement System Components
3.7.3. Total Error when Combining Multiple Measurements
Chapter 4: Calibration of Measuring Sensors And Instruments
4.2. Principles of Calibration
4.3. Control of Calibration Environment
4.4. Calibration Chain and Traceability
Chapter 5: Data Acquisition With LabView
5.2. Computer-Based Data Acquisition
5.2.1. Acquisition of Data
5.3. National Instruments LabView
5.3.1. Virtual Instruments
5.4. Introduction to Graphical Programming in LabView
5.4.1. Elements of the Tools Palette
5.5. Logic Operations in LabView
5.7. Case Structure in LabView
5.8. Data Acquisition Using LabView
5.9. LabView Function Generation
5.12. Appendix: Software Tools for Laboratory Data Acquisition
5.12.1. Measurement Foundry
Chapter 6: Signal Processing With LabView
6.2.2. Active Filters Using Op-amps
6.2.3. Implementation on a Breadboard
6.2.4. Building the Circuit
6.2.5. Electronic Components
6.2.6. Op-amps in Analogue Signal Processing
6.3.1. Input Averaging Filter
6.3.2. Filter With Memory
6.3.4. LabView Implementation
6.3.5. Higher Order Digital Filters
6.6.1. Simple Filter Solution
6.6.2. Matlab Solution to the Butterworth Filter Design
Chapter 7: Electrical Indicating and Test Instruments
7.2.1. Voltage-to-Time Conversion Digital Voltmeter
7.2.2. Potentiometric Digital Voltmeter
7.2.3. Dual-Slope Integration Digital Voltmeter
7.2.4. Voltage-to-Frequency Conversion Digital Voltmeter
7.2.5. Digital Multimeter
7.3.4. Analogue Multimeter
7.3.5. Measuring High-Frequency Signals With Analogue Meters
7.3.6. Calculation of Meter Outputs for Nonstandard Waveforms
7.4.1. Analogue Oscilloscope (Cathode Ray Oscilloscope)
7.4.2. Digital Storage Oscilloscopes
7.4.3. Digital Phosphor Oscilloscope
7.4.4. Digital Sampling Oscilloscope
7.4.5. Personal Computer-Based Oscilloscope
Chapter 8: Display, Recording, and Presentation Of Measurement Data
8.2. Display of Measurement Signals
8.2.1. Electronic Output Displays
8.2.2. Computer Monitor Displays
8.3. Recording of Measurement Data
8.3.2. Ink-Jet and Laser Printers
8.3.3. Other Recording Instruments
8.3.4. Digital Data Recorders
8.4. Presentation of Data
8.4.1. Tabular Data Presentation
8.4.2. Graphical Presentation of Data
Chapter 9: Variable Conversion Elements
9.2.1. Null-Type D.c. Bridge (Wheatstone Bridge)
9.2.2. Deflection-Type D.c. Bridge
9.2.5. Commercial Bridges
9.3. Resistance Measurement
9.3.1. d.c. Bridge Circuit
9.3.2. Voltmeter-Ammeter Method
9.3.3. Resistance-Substitution Method
9.3.4. Use of Digital Voltmeter to Measure Resistance
9.4. Inductance Measurement
9.5. Capacitance Measurement
9.7. Frequency Measurement
9.7.1. Digital Counter/Timer
9.8.1. Electronic Counter/Timer
9.8.4. Phase-Sensitive Detector
Chapter 10: Measurement Signal Transmission
10.2. Electrical Transmission
10.2.1. Transmission as Varying Voltages
10.2.2. Current Loop Transmission
10.2.3. Transmission Using an A.c. Carrier
10.3. Pneumatic Transmission
10.4. Fiber-Optic Transmission
10.4.1. Principles of Fiber Optics
10.4.2. Transmission Characteristics
10.4.3. Multiplexing Schemes
10.5. Optical Wireless Telemetry
10.6. Radiotelemetry (Radio Wireless Transmission)
10.7. Digital Transmission Protocols
Chapter 11: Intelligent Devices
11.2. Principles of Digital Computation
11.2.1. Elements of a Computer
11.2.2. Computer Operation
11.2.3. Computer Input-Output Interface
11.2.4. Practical Considerations in Adding Computers to Measurement Systems
11.3. Intelligent Devices
11.3.1. Intelligent Instruments
11.3.3. Smart Transmitters
11.4. Communication With Intelligent Devices
11.4.1. Input-Output Interface
11.4.2. Parallel Data Bus
11.4.3. Local Area Networks
11.4.4. Digital Fieldbuses
Chapter 12: Measurement Reliability and Safety Systems
12.2.1. Principles of Reliability
12.2.2. Laws of Reliability in Complex Systems
12.2.3. Improving Measurement System Reliability
12.2.4. Software Reliability
12.3.1. Introduction to Safety Systems
12.3.2. Design of a Safety System
Chapter 13: Sensor Technologies
13.5. Hall-Effect Sensors
13.6. Piezoelectric Transducers
13.8. Piezoresistive Sensors
13.9.1. Optical Sensors (Air Path)
13.9.2. Optical Sensors (Fiber Optic)
13.10. Ultrasonic Transducers
13.10.1. Transmission Speed
13.10.2. Directionality of Ultrasound Waves
13.10.3. Relationship Between Wavelength, Frequency, and Directionality Of Ultrasound Waves
13.10.4. Attenuation of Ultrasound Waves
13.10.5. Ultrasound as a Range Sensor
13.10.6. Effect of Noise in Ultrasonic Measurement Systems
13.10.7. Exploiting Doppler Shift in Ultrasound Transmission
Chapter 14: Temperature Measurement
14.2. Thermoelectric Effect Sensors (Thermocouples)
14.2.1. Thermocouple Tables
14.2.2. Nonzero Reference Junction Temperature
14.2.3. Thermocouple Types
14.2.4. Thermocouple Protection
14.2.5. Thermocouple Manufacture
14.2.7. Digital Thermometer
14.2.8. Continuous Thermocouple
14.3. Varying Resistance Devices
14.3.1. Resistance Thermometers (Resistance Temperature Devices)
14.4. Semiconductor Devices
14.5. Radiation Thermometers
14.5.1. Optical Pyrometer
14.5.2. Radiation Pyrometers
14.6. Thermography (Thermal Imaging)
14.7. Thermal Expansion Methods
14.7.1. Liquid-in-Glass Thermometers
14.7.2. Bimetallic Thermometer
14.7.3. Pressure Thermometers
14.8. Quartz Thermometers
14.9. Fiber-Optic Temperature Sensors
14.11. Change of State of Materials
14.12. Intelligent Temperature-Measuring Instruments
14.13. Choice Between Temperature Transducers
14.14. Calibration of Temperature Transducers
14.14.1. Reference Instruments and Special Calibration Equipment
14.14.2. Calculating Frequency of Calibration Checks
14.14.3. Procedures for Calibration
Chapter 15: Pressure Measurement
15.3. Capacitive Pressure Sensor
15.4. Fiber-Optic Pressure Sensors
15.7.2. Well-Type Manometer (Cistern Manometer)
15.7.3. Inclined Manometer (Draft Gauge)
15.8. Resonant Wire Devices
15.9. Electronic Pressure Gauges
15.10. Special Measurement Devices for Low Pressures
15.10.1. Thermocouple Gauge
15.10.2. Thermistor Gauge
15.10.5. Ionization Gauge
15.11. High-Pressure Measurement (Greater than 7000 Bar)
15.12. Intelligent Pressure Transducers
15.13. Differential Pressure-Measuring Devices
15.14. Selection of Pressure Sensors
15.15. Calibration of Pressure Sensors
15.15.1. Reference Calibration Instruments
15.15.2. Calculating Frequency of Calibration Checks
15.15.3. Procedures for Calibration
Chapter 16: Flow Measurement
16.2.1. Conveyor-Based Methods
16.2.2. Coriolis Flowmeter
16.2.3. Thermal Mass Flow Measurement
16.2.4. Joint Measurement of Volume Flow Rate and Fluid Density
16.3.1. Differential Pressure (Obstruction-Type) Meters
16.3.2. Variable Area Flowmeters (Rotameters)
16.3.3. Positive Displacement Flowmeters
16.3.5. Electromagnetic Flowmeters
16.3.6. Vortex-Shedding Flowmeters
16.3.7. Ultrasonic Flowmeters
16.3.8. Other Types of Flowmeters for Measuring Volume Flow Rate
16.3.9. Open Channel Flowmeters
16.4. Intelligent Flowmeters
16.5. Choice Between Flowmeters for Particular Applications
16.6. Calibration of Flowmeters
16.6.1. Calibration Equipment and Procedures for Mass Flow-Measuring Instruments
16.6.2. Calibration Equipment and Procedures for Instruments Measuring Volume Flow Rate of Liquids
16.6.3. Calibration Equipment and Procedures for Instruments Measuring Volume Flow Rate of Gases
16.6.4. Reference Standards
Chapter 17: Level Measurement
17.4. Pressure-Measuring Devices (Hydrostatic Systems)
17.6. Ultrasonic Level Gauge
17.7. Radar (Microwave) Sensors
17.8. Nucleonic (or Radiometric) Sensors
17.9.1. Vibrating Level Sensor
17.10. Intelligent Level-Measuring Instruments
17.11. Choice Between Different Level Sensors
17.12. Calibration of Level Sensors
Chapter 18: Mass, Force, and Torque Measurement
18.2. Mass (Weight) Measurement
18.2.1. Electronic Load Cell (Electronic Balance)
18.2.2. Pneumatic and Hydraulic Load Cells
18.2.3. Intelligent Load Cells
18.2.4. Mass Balance (Weighing) Instruments
18.3.1. Use of Accelerometers
18.3.2. Vibrating Wire Sensor
18.3.3. Use of Load Cells
18.4.1. Measurement of Induced Strain
18.4.2. Optical Torque Measurement
18.4.3. Reaction Forces in Shaft Bearings
18.5. Calibration of Mass, Force, and Torque Measuring Sensors
18.5.2. Force Sensor Calibration
18.5.3. Calibration of Torque Measuring Systems
Chapter 19: Translational Motion, Vibration, And Shock Measurement
19.2.1. Resistive Potentiometer
19.2.2. Linear Variable Differential Transformer (Lvdt)
19.2.3. Variable Capacitance Transducers
19.2.4. Variable Inductance Transducers
19.2.6. Piezoelectric Transducers
19.2.8. Other Methods of Measuring Small/Medium-Sized Displacements
19.2.9. Measurement of Large Displacements (Range Sensors)
19.2.10. Proximity Sensors
19.2.11. Choosing Translational Measurement Transducers
19.2.12. Calibration of Translational Displacement Measurement Transducers
19.3.1. Differentiation of Displacement Measurements
19.3.2. Integration of Output of an Accelerometer
19.3.3. Conversion to Rotational Velocity
19.3.4. Calibration of Velocity Measurement Systems
19.4.1. Selection of Accelerometers
19.4.2. Calibration of Accelerometers
19.5.1. Nature of Vibration
19.5.2. Vibration Measurement
19.5.3. Calibration of Vibration Sensors
19.6.1. Calibration of Shock Sensors
Chapter 20: Rotational Motion Transducers
20.2. Rotational Displacement
20.2.1. Circular and Helical Potentiometers
20.2.2. Rotational Differential Transformer
20.2.3. Incremental Shaft Encoders
20.2.4. Coded Disc Shaft Encoders
20.2.7. The Induction Potentiometer
20.2.8. The Rotary Inductosyn
20.2.10. Choice Between Rotational Displacement Transducers
20.2.11. Calibration of Rotational Displacement Transducers
20.3. Rotational Velocity
20.3.1. Digital Tachometers
20.3.2. Stroboscopic Methods
20.3.3. Analogue Tachometers
20.3.4. The Rate Gyroscope
20.3.5. Fiber-Optic Gyroscope
20.3.6. Differentiation of Angular Displacement Measurements
20.3.7. Integration of Output From an Accelerometer
20.3.8. Choice Between Rotational Velocity Transducers
20.3.9. Calibration of Rotational Velocity Transducers
20.4. Rotational Acceleration
20.4.1. Calibration of Rotational Accelerometers
Appendix 1: Imperial–Metric–SI Conversion Tables
Additional Conversion Factors
Additional Conversion Factors
Specific Energy (Heat Per Unit Volume)
Appendix 2: Theacutevenin's Theorem
Appendix 3: Thermocouple Tables
Measurement and Instrumentation
：Theory and Application
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